①巴比伦王国。西亚巴比伦尼亚南部奴隶制城邦。以巴比伦城为中心。公元前十九世纪中,阿摩列依人在此建国。史称古巴比伦王国(约公元前1894~前1595年)。其第六代国王汉穆拉比(约公元前1792~前1750年)先后征服其他城邦,统一两河流域,建立一个强大的中央集权制国家,成为西亚古代奴隶制国家的典型。所颁《汉穆拉比法典》是古代西亚第一部成文法典。经济文化高度发展,特别是数学和天文学。汉穆拉比死后,逐渐衰弱,在公元前1595年为赫梯王国所灭。公元前626年,闪米特族的一支迦勒底人占领巴比伦,重建新巴比伦王国(公元前626~前538年)。也叫迦勒底王国。公元前612年与米堤亚联军灭亚述,其疆域包括两河流域的大部、叙利亚、巴勒斯坦以至阿拉伯北部地区。公元前六世纪后半期,国势强盛。国王尼布甲尼撒二世多次发动对外战争,进行扩张。公元前586年,攻占耶路撒冷,灭犹太王国,其疆域包括两河流域大部,叙利亚和巴勒斯坦等地。以后政变屡起,国势顿衰。公元前538年为波斯所灭。 A 北美枫s
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美索不达米亚(Mesopotamia,希腊语的意思是两河之间的土地。)文明(又称两河文明)发源于底格里斯河(Tigris)和幼发拉底河(Euphrates)之间的流域——苏美尔(Sumer)地区(中下游地区)。美索不达米亚是古巴比伦(Babylon)的所在,在今伊拉克(Iraq)共和国境内。 北美枫7
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公元前4000年到公元前2250年是两河文明的鼎盛时期,《旧约全书》称其为"希纳国"(Land of Shinar)。两河沿岸因河水泛滥而积淀成肥沃土壤,史称"肥沃的新月地带"。由于两河不象尼罗河一样是定期泛滥的,所以确定时间就必须靠观测天象。住在下游的苏美人发明了太阳历,以月亮的阴晴圆缺作为计时标准,把一年划分为12个月,共354天,并发明闰月,放置与太阳历相差的11天。把一小时分成60分,以7天为一星期。还会分数、加减乘除四则运算和解一元二次方程,发明了10进位法和16进位法。他们把圆分为360度,并知道π近似于3。甚至会计算不规则多边形的面积及一些锥体的体积。 i这
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4000BC,苏美人最早发明了表意和指意符号的象形文字,因为这种文字大多刻在砖、石或黑色的玄武岩、泥板上,"起笔重而印痕较深",成尖劈形,形似木楔,所以被称为楔形文字。
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古巴比伦的空中花园(Hanging Gardens)是世界和七大奇 北美枫4迹之一。这座花园传说是当时的国王为公主而建的。 d7
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之后的尼罗河文明和印度河文明,是在两河文明的促进下发展起来的。希腊人从那里学到了数学、物理学和哲学;犹太人从那里学到了神学,并将它传播于世;阿拉伯人从那里学到了建筑学,并以此教化了整个中世纪野蛮的欧洲。 国
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大约在2000BC,阿摩利人建立了以巴比伦城为首都的巴比伦王国。1792BC,汉穆拉比(Hammurabi)即位,征服了苏美尔人和阿卡德人,统一了美索不达米亚平原,并颁布了《汉穆拉比法典》,这是世界上第一部较为完备的成文法典,但不是最早的,最早的叫《乌尔纳木法典》。《汉穆拉比法典》共有282条,刻在一块高2.25米的黑色玄武岩石柱上。 rh他
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689BC,巴比伦王国被亚述所灭。605BC新巴比伦王国灭掉了亚述。后来,神庙祭师集团当权,终于在538BC,被位于伊朗高原的波斯所灭。古代两河流域的文明作为一个独立的整体便告结束。 巴比伦(Babylon)是世界著名古城遗址和人类文明的发祥地之一。它位于伊拉克首都巴格达以南90公里处,幼发拉底河右岸,建于公元前2350多年,是与古代中国、印度、埃及齐名的人类文明发祥地。巴比伦意即“神之门”,由于地处交通要冲,“神之门”不断扩展,成为幼发拉底河和格里底斯河两河流域的重镇。公元前2000年至公元前1000年曾是西亚最繁华的政治、经济以及商业和文化中心,这里还曾是古巴比伦王国和新巴比伦王国的首都。 y大
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古巴比伦城垣雄伟、宫殿壮丽,充分显示了古代两河流域的建筑水平。幼发拉底河自北向南纵贯全城,城内的主要建筑埃萨吉纳大庙及所属的埃特梅兰基塔庙,高达91米,基座每边长91.4米,上有7层,每层都以不同色彩的釉砖砌成,塔顶有一座用釉砖建成、供奉玛克笃克神金像的神庙。据说,这就是《圣经》中耶和华变乱人们的语言,致使人们未能造成通天的巴别塔。城内古建筑精华之一的“女神门”,高12米、宽近20米,门墙镶嵌着形象生动的釉彩动物图案,还有被称为世界七大奇迹的“空中花园”,引人注目的人与狮子搏斗的石刻雕像。 t
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被列为古代世界七大奇迹之一的巴比伦“空中花园”,亦称“悬苑”,它依偎在幼发拉底河畔,新巴比伦王国国王尼布甲尼撒二世(公元前604-前562年)曾以兴建宏伟的城市和宫殿建筑闻名于世,他在位时主持建造了这座名园。相传,他娶波斯国公主赛米拉米斯为妃。公主日夜思念花木繁茂的故土,郁郁寡欢。国王为取悦爱妃,即下令在都城巴比伦兴建了高达25米的花园。此园采用立体叠园手法,在高高的平台上,分层重叠,层层遍植奇花异草,并埋设了灌溉用的水源和水管,花园由镶嵌着许多彩色狮子的高墙环绕。王妃见后大悦。因从远处望去,此园如悬空中,故又称“空中花园”。 D
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然而从公元前539年起,巴比伦城曾先后被波斯人、马其顿国王亚历山大和帕提亚人占领。自公元前4世纪末逐渐衰落,到公元2世纪则沦为一片废墟;当年“女神门”内庆典大道两旁的120尊石狮早已荡然无存。 l风
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为了发展旅游业,1978年,伊拉克政府制年要自定与实施了一项修建巴比伦遗址的计划,在 一q遗址上仿建了部分城墙和建筑,在城内修建了博物馆,陈列出土的巴比伦文物,其中,犹以一块高逾2米的黑色闪绿岩石碑的复制品是最为珍贵,石碑的上半部是镌刻太阳神将权B标授予汉穆拉比情景的精致浮雕,下半部则为用楔形文字记载的《汉穆拉比法是典》全文。这部由古巴比伦国王汉穆拉比(约公元前1792~前1750年)领导制定s的世界第一部法典的石碑原件现保存在法国s的卢浮宫博物馆。此外,伊拉克政府还在巴s比伦遗址和巴格达市内仿古重建了宁马克神庙和空中花园,修葺一新古城的淡蓝色城墙高数丈,重现了这座古t3大城昔日的风韵。 中了
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底格里斯河与幼发拉底河流域的美索不达米亚(希腊语:两河之间的地方)大约在公元前19世纪(中国夏朝的时候)就孕育了人类有史以来最早的文明——古巴比伦文明;这个地区由于没有天然的屏障,所以产生了古巴比伦多样化的文化发展趋势。 c风
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底格里斯河和幼发拉底河中间的地方叫“美索不达米亚”,意思就是“两河之间”。每年春天,高原地区的积雪融化,这两条河就在美索不达米亚泛滥成灾。特别是下游一带,地势低凹,几乎全被淹没。一个流传到今天的巴比伦神话,生动地反映了这种情形:一位巴比伦国王的祖先梦见他遇到了神仙。神告诉他,洪水就要淹没大地,来惩罚人类的罪恶。因为他一向对神十分虔诚,所以神要搭救他。这个人听从神的吩咐,造了一只方舟,把全家人都搬到舟上,还带了几只动物和一些种子。没过多久,乌云布满天空,黑暗笼罩了大地,狂风暴雨袭来,滔滔洪水淹没了一切生命,只有那只方舟在茫茫无边的水面上漂行。到了第七天,风住了,河水平静下来。这时候,方舟漂到一座山旁。舟上的人把动物放出方舟,将种子撒在山上,大地的生命重新开始了。人类许多民族的神话都受到巴比伦这个古老传说的影响。西方著名的诺亚方舟的故事也是从这个传说演变来的:一个叫诺亚的人按照上帝的命令造了一只方舟,全家人坐上去,躲过了水灾。当洪水退落的时候,诺亚放出一只鸽子。不久,鸽子衔着一片新拧下的橄榄叶子飞回来,使诺亚知道洪水已经退去,万物又恢复了生命。后来,西方人就把鸽子和橄榄枝作为和平的象征。 hx3DB
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当然,无论是神仙还是和平鸽,都不能给人们带来真正的安宁和幸福。要战胜洪水,还得靠人们自己。巴比伦人在和洪水斗争中,学会了修堤筑坝,开渠造河。当洪水被制服以后,他们和埃及人一样,也享受到了河流定期泛滥的好处。泛滥的洪水带来大量淤泥,使两岸的土壤变得十分肥沃。再加上这里阳光强烈,水量充足,庄稼年年丰收。据说,小麦最早就是生长在巴比伦的。 要
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住在巴比伦北面的亚述人十分强悍。公元前8世纪(中国已经进入春秋时代),亚述成为一个庞大的军事帝国。巴比伦被它征服了,叙利亚、腓尼基、巴勒斯坦、小亚细亚、埃及,也都先后归入它的版图。除了希腊和意大利,地中海沿岸几乎都被它占领了。亚述的首都叫尼尼微,那里修建了许多宏伟的宫殿。 0e
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公元前612年,居住在巴比伦的迦勒底人联合东边的米堤亚人进攻亚达。他们手执带血的长矛和盾牌冲进了尼尼微。全城居民遭到屠杀,甚至连儿童也不能幸免。亚述最后一代国王辛沙立希孔和他的宫殿一起被烧成灰烬。从此,这个庞大帝国连同它的首都就从地面上消失了。 f北美枫
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底格里斯河边有两堆很大的荒丘,据说是尼尼微的遗址。1845年,英国人拉雅得在这里发掘出两座亚述王宫,发现了著名的带有双翼的人头牛身巨大雕像和许多精美的石版雕刻。后来他继续挖掘,三年中又挖出28座王宫大厅。但是,这里并不是尼尼微,而是亚述的另一个城市,叫卡拉。真正的尼尼微在卡拉以北六七十公里的地方。1849年,拉雅得在这里找到了西努基立王(公元前700多年)的大宫殿遗址。这座宫殿曾经遭到米堤亚人的焚毁。许多刻有图画和楔形文字的泥版还有大火烧过的痕迹。王宫的两间藏书室堆满刻有楔形文字的大大小小的泥版。最大的一块长3米,宽2米多,最小的还不到1寸长,只刻着一两行文字。这些泥版就是2500多年前亚述的图书,内容很丰富,包括历史、法律、宗教和自然科学等方面的知识。过了几年,考古学家拉萨姆又发现了亚述巴尼拔王的王宫大殿和另一处王宫藏书室。藏书室内收藏的泥版文书上,刻有许多关于亚述和巴比伦的神话。亚述的宫殿是由成千上万的奴隶修建的,他们多半是亚述人在战争中掠夺来的俘虏。奴隶劳动的时候,有的带着锁链和脚镣,有的被铁索相互牢牢地系在一起。旁边还有手执武器的兵士监视着。反映这些场面的图画也被发掘出来了。在尼尼微发掘出来的大量文物,使我们能够清楚地了解亚述帝国兴衰的历史。 时说和国
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战胜了亚述的迦勒底人在巴比伦建立了一个新的国家。为了和那个被亚述灭掉的古巴比伦王国区别开,人们把它叫做新巴比伦王国。新巴比伦国王尼布甲尼撒,把首都巴比伦城建成一座堡垒般的城市。它的规模就是用今天的标准来看,也是非常壮观的。城市是方形的,每边长22.2公里。围绕城市的城墙大约有8.5米高,是用砖砌和油漆浇灌而成的。四匹马拉的战车可以在宽阔的城墙上奔驰。全城有100扇用铜做成的城门。城墙周围还有很深的护城河。幼发拉底河从城墙下流进来,穿城而过。巴比伦城里还有一座很大的皇宫,皇宫内修建了一个“空中花园”,被后世称为世界七大奇迹之一。 rt
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国王尼布甲尼撒在位期间(公元前605~公元前562年),巴比伦的国力最为强大。他率兵攻打叙利亚,出兵巴勒斯坦,夺占耶路撒冷,灭掉犹太王国,强迫犹太人迁居巴比伦当奴隶,成为“巴比伦之囚”。在晚年,他还侵入埃及。在这几十年里,巴比伦城人口达到10多万,还有来自亚洲各地的商人,奴隶制经济有了很大发展。但是,在强盛的背后,已经埋伏了危机,被征服的外族人对巴比伦奴隶主的仇恨和反抗不断发生,本族的贫民和农民因破产沦为奴隶,加剧了国内的阶级矛盾,奴隶主阶级内部争权夺利的矛盾也越来越激烈。尼布甲尼撒死后,国内政局立即动荡起来,6年中8个国王被废,其中两个被杀。在东面,力量越来越强大的波斯帝国征服了巴比伦的盟邦米堤亚,对巴比伦形成了大军压境的局面。 了他
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巴比伦的奴隶主们忙于争权夺利,纵情享乐,他们以为他们的城墙是那样高大而坚固,谁也攻不破。他们万万没有想到,敌人会利用穿过城墙的幼发拉底河打进来。一天晚上,巴比伦的一个年轻王子正在举行狂欢宴会。波斯王居鲁士下令在幼发拉底河中修筑了一座水坝,把河水放到坝的一边去。他的军队从另一边放干水的河床中偷偷进到城里,未经交战就占领了巴比伦。据说,有一些巴比伦商人做了波斯人的内应。这件事发生在公元前538年(中国春秋末年)。 全
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在仅88年的新巴比伦王国灭亡了。巴比伦的繁华,巴比伦的奇迹,巴比伦的高墙铜门和它的“空中花园”,都变成了一堆一堆的荒丘废土。巴比伦遗址从1899年开始逐渐发掘出来,使人们能够更准确地研究它的过去。但是,挖掘工作碰到了难题,地下水的冲击使古巴比伦城有完全被毁的危险。如何降低河水水位,成为许多国家的专家们研究的课题。 风人8h
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然而令人们始终忧虑不已的是在这片古老而神奇的土地上,与文明相生相伴,战争也从来没有休止过。这块非常适合人类居住的土地据说就是《圣经》中伊甸园的原型地。然而,也许正是因为优越的地理位置,它也不断成为政治和战争的舞台。当巴格达已经成为这个世界上最为精妙绝伦的城市的时候,整个欧洲还处于蛮荒状态,这里曾是世界著名的大都市,一千零一夜的故乡,其科学、哲学和文学的成就是文明史上所罕见的。综观数千年来的两河流域兴衰史,哪一场战争不是对文明的破坏呢? v花q
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注:古巴比伦是对文明发源地的称谓;而美索布达米亚平原则是现今古巴比伦的位置。 g和
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古代两河流域历史时代。始于伊新 拉尔沙时期(约公元前2017~前1763),至古巴比伦第一王朝(约公元前1894~前1595)结束。公元前16世纪初,为赫梯人所灭。统治者为阿摩利人。 0如
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这一时代大奴隶制经济形式瓦解,青铜工具 l自普遍使用,生产有?大发展;在此基础上,各城邦均制定法典;神庙地位北美枫ac下降;两河流域普遍塞北美文学网姆化,苏美尔人已融合于塞姆人。 c天
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公元前21世纪下半叶,埃兰人灭乌尔第三王朝后,阿摩利人由西北乘虚而入,在苏美 尔建立伊新和拉尔沙两个国家,其创立者均为阿摩利人的氏族酋长。伊新和拉尔沙对峙达200余年。
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公元前19世纪初,阿摩利人的阿姆纳努姆部落 在巴比伦摆脱伊新的控制,其首领苏木阿布建立巴比伦第一王朝。此时两河流域的主要城邦国家为亚述、马里、埃兰等。 y
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巴比伦建立之初尚?弱小,但由于其位于两河流域商路的枢纽地?,境内水源丰富,土地肥沃, 政治和经济力量不断增强。第6代国王汉穆拉比在位时期(约公元前1792~前1750),先后征服伊新、乌鲁克、拉尔沙等国,并占据亚述南部,建立起从波斯湾至地中海沿岸的中央集权制奴隶制帝国,自称“世界四方之王”。 7个
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但汉穆拉比的统治并不巩固,其?承者萨姆苏伊卢纳在位时,两河流域南部发生起义, 内部也发生反债务奴役斗争,这导致了巴比伦第一王朝的衰微。公元前1595年,赫梯统治者穆尔西里斯一世最后将其灭亡。 j 生大
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古巴比伦时代各城邦的政治制度与苏美尔阿卡德时代及乌尔第三王朝( 见乌尔)不同。汉穆拉比统一后,建立中央集权 的专制制度。国王独揽政治、军事、外交、司法和宗教等权力,直接任命中央和地方官吏。 Bj不a
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大行政?设总督,在?大城市中任命被称为“沙北美文学网卡那库” 的官员,小城市任命被称为tfm“拉比亚努姆”的官员治理。有些城市(如西帕尔等)获得1无0一定自治权,城市商人鉴督从富裕商人家族中自选出,任期1年,负责税收、运河开凿、城 来B墙北美文学网修筑、公x共仓库和码?的管理如等。 q不他
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汉穆拉比的对内政策基本是伊新 拉尔沙时期城邦政策的?续。统一?程中,汉穆拉比外交政策的基本方针是远交近攻,灵活变动结盟关系,为统一两河流域总目标服务。 花m个
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古巴比伦社会分为三个等级: 大
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1,阿维鲁,为全权自由民,上层是统治阶级,下层多是纳税、服兵役和徭役的自耕农和士兵。 国自
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2,穆什钦努,为依附于王室土地的无权自由民,古巴比伦时代还存在其他类似穆什钦努的依附阶层。 时9
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1,“供养(维持)宫廷之田”;以供职为条件所授份地;以纳赋税(纳贡)为条件所授份地。以供职为条件领有份地者包括士兵、官吏、塔木卡(商业代理人、高利贷者)等。士兵列都、巴依鲁以服军役而领有王室份地。其份地可由其成年儿子?承,但仍以服军役为条件;拒?或雇人代其服军役者处死刑。 春年u大
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2,“纳贡人”;指领有大部分王室土地是以纳赋税(纳贡)为条件的份地的人,受王室的剥削和控制,其份地亦不得买卖、抵押或传于女?承人。 全
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3,除王室土4地外,古巴比伦社会还存在神庙土地、城市土地及私人土地。汉穆拉比法典和考古发现的9契约文书及其他文献材料证明: 私有土地占相了说a当数量,土地租佃和雇佣关系已普遍流行。地 个q租一般是收成的1/2或1/3。果园、菜园的地租 6以为收成的2/不3。 C我j
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360土地价值随灌溉用水的供应情况而异,有北美文学网的供应灌溉用水的园圃地租高达收成的3/4。 k一高利贷业甚为活跃,神庙和酒店同时来经营高利贷业。高利贷业的活跃促进债务奴 km役制的发展。债奴了日a被称为基萨图。在家庭和婚姻关系方面,还保 Cc存父权和夫权的家长制残余。父家长可将其日妻或子女卖为奴隶或使之变为债奴,子女须为x其父家长杀害的他人子女抵命。债务奴役制全f3的发展导致债务人的反抗。汉穆拉比之后即n爆发了反债务奴役的斗争,导致国王发表解负中令。这也是古巴比伦灭亡的重要原因z之一。 这m
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祭司是神庙的侍奉人员,负责主持祭祀活动他、节庆典礼,念咒祈祷,占卜等。他们是古山为g代美索不达米亚c国家一个最特殊的阶c层。 是
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美索不达米亚大部分的神,都供在庙里。因此,美索不达米亚地的庙宇也多得数不清。据统计,考古学家仅在苏美尔遗址就发掘出了3500座庙宇! 7
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美索不达米亚人注重现世的祈福和享乐,建造神庙是为了祭祀诸神,保持和神的良好关系,以保佑风调雨顺、国泰民安。所以,一国之中,庙宇往往是仅次于王宫的最好建筑。对修建神庙,各民族都舍得花大本钱。希罗多德在他著作中描述的巴比通天塔,就是最有代表性的神庙。 rhq
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既然神庙多得数不清,祭司作为神庙的侍奉和人员,数量自然惊 d8人。他们不仅人数众多,而且权t了f势显赫。 有x
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在美索不达米亚,国家的王权受到三种限制如:法律、贵族和祭司。其中以祭司最有势力 北美枫n。国王是神的代言人,其权力由神授予,而北美文学网神的代表是祭司。在老百姓眼里,人君如果q不从祭司手中获得权杖,就不能称之为名正言顺。祭司代表神授权给君王时,一般都北美文学网有庄严隆重的仪式。在这种神权政治下,祭 北美枫月司拥国有极大的特权。 山中中 8上
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而且,祭司是国家一支重要的经济力量。他这们控制和管理著神庙里的财富。由于宗教在小国家生活中的地位,美索不达米亚的神庙聚2敛的财富无以数计。国王一般划拨一部分土 北美枫f地作为庙产,并指定区域献租纳税。对外战争如果获胜,战俘和战利品优先送达的地方2就是神庙。加上国民竞相敬献的各类供品, Cx神庙里不仅充满了食品、蔬菜、水果,而且如拥有大量的金银财宝。祭司作为财富的管理 yy者,他们出租土地、经营钱庄、参与商业活 个A动,使神庙的财产不断增值。因此,祭司因 d了神得财,因财得势,成为社会的9特权了一s阶级。 北美文学网 sc
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祭司多出于名门望族,职业是世袭的,其称号也代代相传。他们还往往是国家少数垄断了文化知识的人。在神庙开设的学校中,祭司既是校董,又是教师,通?教育对学生灌输宗教思想,因而也是垄断思想的阶层。 f2
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祭司也分不同的等级,高级祭司负责主持重大的祭祀活动,普通祭司按等级各司其责。比如卡鲁、那努负责领唱圣歌,尼撒库负责主持奠酒,那姆克负责清扫,巴努负责驱魔仪式。另外还有专门从事占卜和解释预兆的祭司,他们负责求神问吉、解梦看相、?星预卜等D自
②巴比伦城。西亚古城。位于美索不达米亚年时在南部,濒幼发拉底河下游右岸(今伊拉克巴s格达之南)。古巴比伦王国和新巴比伦王国全5了先后在此建都,成为当时两河流域政治、经济、文化中心。公元前四世纪末渐衰,至公元二世纪化为废墟。尼布甲尼撒二世统治时天期建造的新巴比伦城,据近代考古发掘,有了的无三道城墙环绕,黄色城墙长约12.2公里。主墙建有塔楼30015自多座,有浮雕56座。幼发拉底河上架设石墩桥天梁。国王宫殿壮丽,建有被称为世界七大奇迹之一的“空中花园”。巴比伦城 来x代表古代两河流域建筑艺术的高度水平。 dd们
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战胜了亚述的加勒底人在巴比伦建立了一个新的国家。为了和那个被亚述灭掉的古巴比伦王国区别开来,人们把它叫做新巴比伦王国。 天来
尼布甲尼撒二世是新巴比伦王国最著名的国王,他的声名与“巴比伦之囚”和“空中花园”连在一起。 u
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“巴比伦之囚”缘起于公元前601年。这一年尼布甲尼撒再度与埃及交战,结果折翼而返。3年来一直臣服于尼布甲尼撒的犹太国王约雅敬,便趁机脱离新巴比伦,投向了埃及的怀抱。尼布甲尼撒在听到犹太国王投降的消息之后,大发雷霆,发誓要踏平耶路撒冷。公元前598年底,投降埃及的犹太国王约雅敬死去,他的儿子约雅斤即位。尼布甲尼撒认为进攻犹太王国的时机已到,亲自率领大军攻向耶路撒冷。经过两个多月的围攻,在犹太内部亲巴比伦派的推动下,犹太国王带着所有的大臣一起出城投降。尼布甲尼撒废黜了约雅斤,封约雅斤的叔叔为犹太王,并为其改名西底家,让他宣誓效忠新巴比伦王国,不得反叛。然后下令将犹太王室的大部分成员和犹太的能工巧匠一起押往巴比伦。临行前,又下令部下对耶路撒冷的神庙进行洗劫。 u北美文学网
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公元前588年,埃及向巴勒斯坦地区发动了进攻。犹太国王西底家和这一地区其他臣服于新巴比伦的小国,这时纷纷起来响应埃及人。不久,尼布甲尼撒又一次率新巴比伦军队对耶路撒冷发动了第二次围攻。这次围攻历时18个月。由于饥荒和内部分裂,耶路撒冷终于在公元前586年陷落。尼布甲尼撒对一反再反的犹太国王无比的痛恨,下令在犹太国王西底家的面前杀死他的几个儿子,然后又剜去了西底家的眼睛。当已经双目失明的西底家押到尼布甲尼撒面前时,尼布甲尼撒对他说:“这就是你们背叛我的下场!”然后下令用铜链锁着西底家把他带到巴比伦去示众。耶路撒冷全城被洗劫一空。城墙被拆毁,神庙、王宫和许多民宅被焚烧。全城活着的居民几乎全被掳到巴比伦。这就是历史上有名的“巴比伦之囚”。 C 日这
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对犹太人来讲,沦为“巴比伦之囚”是一次惨痛的经历。犹太的先知文学,对尼布甲尼撒对耶路撒冷的围攻和“巴比伦之囚”的记述,都保存在《圣经·旧约全书》中,尼布甲尼撒在那里被说成是上帝惩罚犹太人罪恶的工具。 j v
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在尼布甲尼撒统治时期,新巴比伦王国的政治相对稳定,经济生活繁荣。为了显示他的文治武功,尼布甲尼撒下令重修巴比伦城,把首都巴比伦城建成一座堡垒般的城市。它的规模就是用今天的标准来看,也是非常壮观的。城市是方形的,每边长22.2公里。围绕城市的城墙大约有8.5米高,是用砖砌和油漆浇灌而成的。4匹马拉的战车可以在宽阔的城墙上奔驰。全城有100扇用铜做成的城门,因此希腊大诗人荷马又把巴比伦城称为“百门之都”。城墙的两端起于幼发拉底河畔。河对岸是巴比伦的新城区,一座大桥横跨幼发拉底河,使新城区与主城连在一起。所以,这座城墙不仅是巴比伦人用来抵御敌人的主要屏障,而且也是一道保护巴比伦城不受河水泛滥之害的可靠堤防,同时幼发拉底河也成了可有效抵御外侵的一条护城河。 i时
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而闻名全球的巴比伦伟大建筑——“空中花园”,则来源于一个美丽的爱情故事。公元前614年,尼布甲尼撒即位后不久,就娶米堤亚(现今的伊朗)公主赛米拉斯做王后。但是,这位王后一到巴比伦,只见一片平原,满地黄土,不觉生起思乡病来,茶不思,饭不想,本来非常美丽的公主,变得愁眉紧锁,容颜憔悴。 个t
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这下可急坏了尼布甲尼撒。原来伊朗高原是王后的故乡,那里山峦起伏,森林茂密。可是,在巴比伦连一块石头都不易找到。于是,他下令召集了几万名能工巧匠,用人工堆了一座每边长120多米,高25米(用石柱和石板一层一层向上堆砌,直达高空)的大假山。假山共7层,每层铺上浸透柏油的柳条垫,以防渗水。为了防止万一,上面再铺两层砖头,还浇铸了一层铅。经过这些措施以后,才在上面一层一层地培上肥沃的泥土,种植许多奇花异草。这些花木远看好像长在空中,所以叫做“空中花园”。可空中种了花木,浇水又成了大问题。于是,建筑师们特意在顶上设计了机械的提灌设备,用螺旋泵不断地从幼发拉底河里取水。这在当时,是一项多么艰难的大工程!不愧为“悬挂的天堂”,世界七大奇迹之一。 时的
空中花园里,除了奇花异草,还建造了富丽堂皇的宫殿,这样国王和王后就可以在这座宫殿里浏览全城的风光。据说,米堤亚公主从此兴高采烈,思乡病一下子全好了。 e0
国王尼布甲尼撒在位期间(公元前605年至公元前562年),巴比伦的国力最为强大,巴比伦城人口达到10多万,且因地处交通要冲,世界各国的商人都到这里来,是当时亚洲西部著名的商业和文化中心,被称为“上天的门户”,奴隶制经济也有了很大发展。但是,在强盛的背后,已经埋伏了危机,被征服的外族人对巴比伦奴隶主的仇恨和反抗不断发生,本族的贫民和农民因破产沦为奴隶,加剧了国内的阶级矛盾,奴隶主阶级内部争权夺利的矛盾也越来越激烈。尼布甲尼撒死后,国内政局立即动荡起来,6年中8个国王被废,其中两个被杀。在东面,力量越来越强大的波斯帝国征服了巴比伦的盟邦米堤亚,对巴比伦形成了大军压境的局面。 国
可是巴比伦的奴隶主们仍忙于争权夺利,纵情享乐,他们以为他们的城墙是那样高大而坚固,谁也攻不破。他们万万没有想到,敌人会利用穿过城墙的幼发拉底河打进来。一天晚上,巴比伦的一个年轻王子正在举行狂欢宴会。波斯王居鲁士下令在幼发拉底河中修筑了一座水坝,把河水放到坝的一边去。他的军队从另一边放干水的河床中偷偷进入城里,未经交战就占领了巴比伦。据说,有一些巴比伦商人做了波斯人的内应。这件事发生在公元前538年(中国春秋末年)。 日q北美文学网
存在仅88年的新巴比伦王国灭亡了。巴比伦他的繁华、巴比伦的奇迹、巴比伦的高墙铜门和它的“空中花园”,都变成了一堆堆了t小的荒丘废土。 年如说
当然,巴比伦文明还向人类贡献了天文学、数学、医药学方面的早期成果,无法一一细述。可以确证的是,法典老了,血汗干了,花园塌了。此后2000多年,波斯人来了,马其顿人来了,阿拉伯人来了,蒙古人来了,土耳其人来了……谁都想在这里重新开创自己的历史,因此都不把巴比伦文明当一回事,只有一些偶然的遗落供后世的考古学家拿着放大镜细细寻找。我1
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水果与鲜花……、瀑布……、花园高悬在宫殿的阳台上……、奇异的动物……,这是大多数人想象中的巴比伦空中花园。让人吃惊的是空中花园除了在希腊的诗人和历史学家的头脑中出现过外,可能从来就没有存在过。9e
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古巴比伦王国在著名的国王汉谟拉比(公元前1792~1750)的统治下曾经繁荣一时。但是直到新巴比伦王朝,美索不达米亚文明才达到了它的鼎盛时期。人们相信传说中的空中花园是由尼布甲尼撒二世(公元前604年~562年)建造的。据传,尼布甲尼撒为了取悦于其在米底亚长大并对山景怀有深厚感情的王后或者是妃子而建造了空中花园。来j
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虽然对花园最详尽的记述是出自Berossus 和 Diodorus Siculus等希腊历史学家笔下, 但巴比伦的历史记录却对此事只字未提。尽管在尼布甲尼撒时期存留下的各种书写板上发现了对他的宫殿、巴比伦城以及巴比伦的城墙的种种描述,但这些书写板上却没有一处提到过空中花园。甚至那些对空中花园进行过详细描述的历史学家们也从没有亲眼目睹过它们。现代历史学家争论说:当亚力山大的士兵们到达了富饶的美索不达米亚地区并看到了巴比伦时,他们深为(眼前的美景)所震撼。当他们后来回到崎岖不平的家乡时,带回了有关美索不达米亚的令人惊叹的花园和椰子树……、有关尼布甲尼撒的宫殿……以及有关巴别塔和金字型神塔的各种故事。是诗人和古代历史学家的想象力把这所有的元素混合在一起制造出了世界奇观之一。 dj我6
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直到二十世纪,围绕着空中花园的一些不解之谜才被揭示出来。在得到关于花园的地理位置、灌溉系统,和真正面目的最终结论之前,考古学家们仍在努力地收集足够的证据。不为
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与罗得斯岛巨像一样,考古学家至今都未能找到空中花园的遗迹,事实上,不少在自己著作中提到空中花园的古人也只是从别人口中听回来,并没有真的看过,到底空中花园是否纯粹是传说呢?时是
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巴比伦空中花园位于Euphrates河东面,伊拉克首都巴格达以南50里外左右,四大文明古国之一巴比伦中。我了人x自
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巴比伦的空中花园当然从来都不是吊于空中,这个名字的由来纯粹是因为人们把原本除有“吊”之外,还有“突出”之意的希腊文“kremastos”及拉丁文“pensilis”错误翻译所致。是 v
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一般相信空中花园是由Nebuchadnezzar王(公元前604-公元前562)为了安慰患上思乡病的王妃安美依迪丝(Amyitis),仿照王妃在山上的故像而兴建了空中花园。u天
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空中花园在公元前600年建成,是一和个四角椎体的建设,由沥青及砖块建成的建B筑物以拱顶石柱支承着,台阶种有全年翠绿的树木,河水从空中花园旁边的人工河流下和来日,远看就仿似北美文学网一n座北美文学网小山丘。c 8来
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巴比伦空中花园最令人称奇的地方是那个供水系统,因为巴比伦雨水不多,而空中花园不的遗址相信亦远离Euphrates河,所以研究人员认为空中花园应有不少如图所示的输水设备,奴隶不停地推动连紧着齿轮的把手,把地年个月下水运到最高一层的储水池,再经人工河流的返回地面。另一个难题,是在保养方面,因是为一般的建筑物,要长年抵受河水的侵蚀而不塌下是不可能的,由于米索不达米亚平原(M不esopotamianplain)没有太多石块,因此研究人员相m中e信空中花园所用的砖块是与别不同,它们被天加入了芦苇、沥青及瓦,更有文山个中献指石块被加入了一来层铅,来以防止河水渗入地基。
Babylon is a city of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad.c和
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All that remains today of the ancient famed city of Babylon is a mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in Iraq. Historical resources inform us that Babylon was in the beginning a small town that had sprung up by the beginning of the third millennium BC (the dawn of the dynasties). The town flourished and attained prominence and political repute with the rise of the first Babylonian dynasty. It was the "holy city" of Babylonia by approximately 2300 BC, and the seat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from 612 BC. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.cn和生
The form Babylon is the Greek variant of Akkadian Babilu (bāb-ilû, meaning "Gateway of the god(s)", translating Sumerian Ka.dingir.ra). In the Bible, the name appears as בבל (Babel), interpreted by Book of Genesis 11:9 to mean "confusion" (of languages), from the verb balbal, "to confuse".个以
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The earliest source to mention Babylon may be a dated tablet of the reign of Sargon of Akkad (ca. 24th century BC short chronology). The so-called "Weidner Chronicle" states that it was Sargon himself who built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). Another chronicle likewise states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Agade". (ABC 20:18-19).u天
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Some scholars, including linguist I.J. Gelb, have suggested that the name Babil is an echo of an earlier city name. According to Dr. Ranajit Pal, this city was in the East[1]. Herzfeld wrote about Bawer in Iran, which was allegedly f和ounded by Jamshid; the name Babil could be an yc echo of Bawefv7r. David Rohl holds that the original Babylon is to be iden山9来tified with Eridu. The Bible in Genesis 10 indicates that Nimrod was the original founder of Babel (Babylon). Joan Oat北美枫rmes claims in her yx book Babylon that the rendering "山来自Gateway of the gods" is no longer accepted何小一 by 的modern scho我9个lars.tcpD
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Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in 1792 BC and upon his death in 1750 BCOver the years, the power and population of Babylon waned. From around the 20th century BC, it was occupied by Amorites, nomadic tribes from the west who were Semitic speakers like the Akkadians, but did not practice agriculture like them, preferring to herd sheep. The First Babylonian Dynasty was established by Sumu-abum, but the city-state controlled little surrounding territory until it became the capital of Hammurabi's empire (ca. 18th century BC). From that time onward, the city continued to be the capital of the region known as Babylonia — although during the 440 years of domination by the Kassites (1595–1185 BC), the city was renamed Karanduniash. 国
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Hammurabi is also known for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabi that was to have a profound influence on the region. It is recorded that Babylon's legal system developed a form of negligence law, and Babylon was probably the first culture to develop negligence law. In the common law world, the law of negligence was not fully rediscovered until the 20th century.[citation needed]B生m
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The city itself was built upon the Euphrates, and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon grew in extent and grandeur over time, but gradually became subject to the rule of Assyria.了 v
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It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from ca. 1770 to 1670 BC, and again between ca. 612 and 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.[2]月北美枫m月
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Detail of the Ishtar Gatex 来不
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During the reign of Sennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was 北美枫1 in a constant state of revolt, led by Mushezib-Marduk, and9 suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of北美文学网 Babylon. In 689 BC, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into 个Dthe Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the szouth. This act shocked the religious conscience 来v of Mesopotamia; the subsequent murder of Sennacherib was hueld to be in expiation of it, and his successor Esarhaddon 9hastened to rebuild the old city, to receive there his crow y小n, and make it his residence during part of the year. On hi天s death, Babylonia was left to be governed by his elder son9 Shamash-shum日-ukin, who eventually headed a revolt in 652 BC against his brother in Nineveh, Assurba年全Anipal.北美文学网
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Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians and starved into surrender. Assurbanipal purified the city and celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance. (A. Houtum-Schindler, "Babylon," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed.)了 北美文学网6
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Main article: Neo-Babylonian EmpireD
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Mural near the reconstructed Ishtar Gate, depicting the palace quarter of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon. The Ishtar Gate is shown in the top left corner of the image.Under Nabopolassar, Babylon threw off the Assyrian rule in 626 BC, and became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[3] 北美枫4x
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With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world.[4] Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the Etemenanki ziggurat and the construction of the Ishtar Gate — the most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. The Ishtar Gate survives today in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), said to have been built for his homesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardens did exist is a matter of dispute. Although excavations by German archaeologist Robert Koldewey are thought to reveal its foundations, many historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in Nineveh.7
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In 539 BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, with an unprecedented military maneuver. The famed walls of Babylon were indeed impenetrable, with the only way into the city through one of its many gates or through the Euphrates, which ebbed beneath its thick walls. Metal gates at the river's in-flow and out-flow prevented underwater intruders, if one could hold one's breath to reach them. Cyrus (or his generals) devised a plan to use the Euphrates as the mode of entry to the city, ordering large camps of troops at each point and instructed them to wait for the signal. Awaiting an evening of a national feast among Babylonians (generally thought to refer to the feast of Belshazzar mentioned in Daniel V), Cyrus' troops diverted the Euphrates river upstream, causing the Euphrates to drop to about 'mid thigh level on a man' or to dry up altogether. The soldiers marched under the walls through thigh-level water or as dry as mud. The Persian Army conquered the outlying areas of the city's interior while a majority of Babylonians at the city center were oblivious to the breach. The account was elaborated upon by Herodotus,[5] and is also mentioned by passages in the Hebrew Bible.[6][7] Cyrus claimed the city by walking through the gates of Bab说他们ylon with little or说 no resistance from the drulnken Babylonians.北美枫v说9
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Cyrus later issued a decree permitting the exiled Jews to月 return to their own leand (as explained in the Old Testament), to allow their temnple to be rebuilt back in Jerus8了年alem.z北美文学网
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Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius the Great, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a centre of learning and scientific advancement. In Achaemenid Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics were revitalised and flourished, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city was the administrative capital of the Persian Empire, the preeminent power of the then known world, and it played a vital part in the history of that region for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.[8][9]m时
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The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the rel和igious ceremonies of Marduk, but by the reign of Darius III, over-ta北美文学网xation and the strains of numerous wars led to a deteriorat是ion of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the disintegr 生自ation of the surrounding region. Despite three attempts at 天rebellion in 522 BC, 521 BC and 482 BC, the land and city of Babylon remained solidly under Persian rule for two centuries, until Alexander the Great's t春Centry in 33m不v1 BC.tmh
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In 331 BC, Darius III was defeated by the forces of the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great at the Battle of Gaugamela, and in October, Babylon fell to the young conqueror. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not to enter the homes of its inhabitants.[citation needed]人在p
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Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a centre of learning and commerce. But following Alexander's death in 323 BC in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, and decades of fighting soon began, with Babylon once again caught in the middle.eu
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The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A tablet dated 275 BC states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to Seleucia, where a palace was built, as well as a temple given the ancient name of Esagila. With this deportation, the history of Babylon comes practically to an end,[citation needed] though more than a century later, it was found that sacrif他ices were still performed in its old sanctuary. By 141 BC, swhen the Parthian Empire took over the region, Babylon was f上他in complete desolation and obs5curity.和
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Main article: Babylonia (Persian province)4
Under the Parthian, and later, Sassanid Persians, Babylon remained a province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries, until about 650 AD. It continued to have its own culture and peoples, who spoke varieties of Aramaic, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon. Some examples of their cultural products are often found in the Babylonian Talmud, the Mandaean religion, and the religion of the prophet Mani.x g
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Archaeology of Babylon0上
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Babylon in 1932Historical knowledge of Babylon's topograp这hy is derived from classical writers, the inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar, and several excavations, including those of the Deutsche Orientgesellschaft begun in 1899. The layout i 人As that of the Babylon of Nebuchadnezz山kDar; the older Babylon destroyed by Sennac7herib having left few, if a yfny, traces be这hind.n s月
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Most of the existing remains lie on the east bank of the Euphrates, the principal ones being three vast mounds: the Babil to the north, the Qasr or "Palace" (also known as the Mujelliba) in the centre, and the Ishgn "Amran ibn" All, with the outlying spur of the Jumjuma, to the south. East of these come the Ishgn el-Aswad or "Black Mound" and three lines of rampart, one of which encloses the Babil mound on the north and east sides, while a third forms a triangle with the southeast angle of the other two. West of the Euphrates are other ramparts, and the remains of the ancient Borsippa.
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We learn from Herodotus and Ctesias that the city was built on both sides of the river in the form of a square, and was enclosed within a double row of lofty walls, or a triple row according to Ctesias. Ctesias describes the outermost wall as 360 stades (68 kilometers/42 mi) in circumference, while according to Herodotus it measured 480 stades (90 kilometers/56 mi), which would include an area of about 520 square kilometers (200 sq mi).0
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The estimate of Ctesias is essentially the same as that of Q. Curtius (v. I. 26) — 368 stades — and Cleitarchus (ap. Diod. Sic. ii. 7) — 365 stades; Strabo (xvi. 1. 5) makes it 385 stades. But even the estimate of Ctesias, assuming the stade to be its usual length, would imply an area of about 260 square kilometers (100 sq mi). According to Herodotus, the width of the walls was 24 m. d是说了说
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In 1985, Saddam Hussein started rebuilding the city on top of the old ruins (because of this, artifacts and other finds may well be under the city by now), investing in both restoration and new construction. To the dismay of archaeologists, he inscribed his name on many of the bricks in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq". This recalls the ziggurat at Ur, where each individual brick was stamped with "Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, who built the temple of Nanna". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after the downfall of Hussein, and the ruins are no longer being restored to their original state. He also installed a huge portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins, and shored up Processional Way, a large boulevard of ancient stones, and the Lion of Babylon, a black rock sculpture about 2,600 years old.i2
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When the Gulf War ended, Saddam wanted to build a modern 3大6palace, also over some o自ld ruins; it was made in the pyramidal style of a Sumerian k4ziggurat.不 He named it Saddam Hillj. In 2003, he was ready to begin the construction of a cabl小e car line over Babylon when the invasion began and halt dbed the pzroject.u是
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An article published in April 2006 states that UN officials and Iraqi leaders have big plans for restoring Babylon, making it a gem of a new Iraq as a cultural center complete with shopping malls, hotels, and perhaps a theme park: "One day millions of people will visit Babylon." [10][11]我日 北美枫D
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US forces were criticised for building a helipad on ancient Babylonian ruins following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, under the command of General James T. Conway of the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force.t
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US Marines in front of the rebuilt ruins of Babylon, 2003.US forces have occupied the site for some time and have caused damage to the archaeological record. In a report of the British Museum's Near East department, Dr. John Curtis describes how parts of the archaeological site were levelled to create a landing area for helicopters, and parking lots for heavy vehicles. Curtis wrote that the occupation forcesewb
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"caused substantial damage to the Ishtar Gate, one of the most famous monuments from antiquity [...] US military vehicles crushed 2,600-year-old brick pavements, archaeological fragments were scattered across the site, more than 12 trenches were driven into ancient deposits and military earth-moving projects contaminated the site for future generations of scientists [...] Add to all that the damage kcaused to nine o8Dmf the moulded brick figures of dragonse in the Ishtar Gate by soldiers trying to remove the br 生的icks zfrom the wall." 3a8
A US Military spokesman claimed that engineering operations were discussed with the "head of the Babylon museum". [12]月 11
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The head of the Iraqi State Board for Heritage and Antiquities, Donny George, said that the "mess will take decades to sort out".[13] In April 2006, Colonel John Coleman, former chief of staff for the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force, offered to issue an apology for the damage done by military personnel under his command. However he claimed that the US presence had deterred far greater damage from looters.[14] 何了
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Further reading全j
Joan Oates, Babylon, [Ancient Peoples and Places], Thames and Hudson, 1986. ISBN 0-500-02095-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-500-27384-7 (paperback) f
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See also sz我x
List of Ki这ngs of Baby中lon 上
Mesopotamia t来
Assyria Bf
Akkad, Assur 风如
Tower of Babel, Babel 一 18
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Province of他 Babil e7
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References和 一
[1] This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. fu
[2] What I hea如rd about Iraq in 2005 by Eliot Weinberger, London Revie 来jw of Books 年是o风
[3] The Ancient Middle Eastern Capital City — Reflection and Navel of the World by Stefan Maul ("Die altorientalische Hauptstadt — Abbild und Nabel der Welt," in Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuität. Wandel. Bruch. 1 Internationales Kolloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 9.-1 0. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale, Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag (1997), p.109-124. r这
[4] A military history of Me36zsopotamia mis时
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Notes3g在
^ http://www.ranajitpal.com 大h大
^ Rosenberg, Matt T. Largest Cities Through History, About.com. Accessed April 19, 2008. 是C
^ Bradford, Alfred S. (2001). With Arrow, Sword, and Spea和r: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World, pp北美文学网. 47-48. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0275952592. 2全
^ Saggs, H.W.F. (2000). Babylonians, p. 1653说们. Unive何人春rsity of California Press. ISBN 0520202228. 来花 A
^ Her他odotus, 北美枫u Book 1, Section 北美文学网191 月 北美文学网无
^ Isaiah 44:27 有yt
^ Jeremiah 50-51 大春
^ Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia The British Museum. Accessed April 19, 2008. D北美枫
^ Mesopotamia: The Persians 8BD
^ Gettleman, Jeffrey. Unesco intends to put the magic back in Babylon, International Herald Tribune, April 21, 2006. Accessed April 19, 2008. 花l A
^ McBride, Edward. Monuments to Self: Baghdad's grands projects in the age of Saddam Hussein, MetropolisMag. Accessed April 19, 2008. 时
^ "Damage seen to ancient Babylon", The Boston Globe, January 16, 2005. 春
^ Heritage News fr他om around thne world, World Heritage Alert!. Accessed April 1 kg9, 2008. B有
^ Cornwell, Rupert. US colonel offers Iraq an apology of jsorts for devastation of Babylon, The Indepen上dent, ADpril 15, 2006. Accessed Apr y不il 19, 2008.
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