 印度共和国（The Republic of India）.代码INr 何
【国旗】 呈长方形，长与宽之比 来了为3∶2。自上而下由橙、白、绿三个相等的横天长方形组成，白色长方形中心绘有２４根轴条的蓝色法轮。橙色象征勇敢和自我牺牲精我s不神，也是教士法衣的颜色，z舍身为国1da的英雄们的颜色；白色象征纯洁的真理；绿9色表示信心，代表人类生命所依存的生产力 人自。法轮是印度孔雀王朝阿育王时代佛教圣地月石柱柱头的狮首图案之一，对于印度人而言 们这，它是神圣之轮、真理之 生来轮、向着进步转动之轮，永远轮2回苍穹之轮。 4
【国徽】 图案来源于孔雀王朝阿育王石柱顶端的石刻。圆形台基上站立着四只金色的狮子，象征信心、勇气和力量。台基四周有四个守卫四方的守兽：东方是象、南方是马、西方是牛，北方是狮。守兽之间雕有法轮。图案下面有句用梵文书写的、出自古代印度圣书的格言“唯有真理得胜”。 为j人何7
【2国歌】 《人民的意北美枫了9志》 D
【国花】 莲花 为和e
【国鸟】 蓝孔雀 s风要
【如国山xj树】 菩1有来提树 、榕树小是
【面积】 约298万平方公里（不包括中印边境印占区和克什米尔印度实际控制区等）。印度政府称其领土为328.78万平方公里。印度面积居世界第七位。rz
【人口】 11.3亿(2007年)。有10个大 1日民族和许多小民族，印度斯坦族占46.3%，泰卢q固族8.6％，孟加拉族7.7％，马拉地族7.6%，泰北美文学网米尔族7.4%，古吉拉特族4.6%，坎拿达族3.9%， rc马拉雅拉姆族3.9%，奥里雅族3.8%，旁遮普族2.3 生要%。英语和印地语同为官方语言。约2有82%的居民信奉印度教，其次为全和人伊斯兰教（12%）、基督教（2.3%）、锡克教（1的.9%）、佛教（0.8%）和耆那教（0.4%）等。uz
【首都】 新德里（New Delhi们），连同老德里人口共1280万（2001 d一年）。 C有花有
【国家元首】 4总统现任总统是普拉蒂巴-帕蒂尔（女），2007年7月25日就任。
人k不在
D北美枫
地理环境ti
[编辑本段] 来无r
印度位于印度次大陆，主要由三部分组成：在北部的喜马拉雅山区（其中就有海拔8,598米的印度最高峰康城章加峰）、中央平原(Indo-Gangetic Plain)以及南部的德干高原。了的
多条河流发源于或流经印度，例如有恒河、布拉马普特拉河、亚穆纳河、戈达瓦里河以及奎师那河(Krishna River)。印度河上流的一小段也位于印度境内。印度属热带季风气候，气温变化较大。 何我t
象她的人民一样，印度的地质、地理和风土代表了地球历史的真正全貌。世界上最高而有最年轻的喜马拉雅山形成了印度北部的一道让人望而生畏的天然屏障，她东西绵延2500公里，构成50万平方公里的面积。她最著名的西崖沉冰川是冲积成富饶的北部，西部山谷的万年流淌的河流的永不枯竭的源泉。印度的圣河恒河，还有雅穆纳河、信度河、布拉马普特拉河从远古时期就孕育了沿岸的富饶大地的文明。到了西北部，有世界上最古老的、数百万年以来不再荣耀、不再肥沃的阿拉瓦里山系。要是
文迪亚山和萨特普拉山脉从东到西平行35r横贯几乎整个印度半岛。撒黑亚得里山平行横贯印度西海岸，东海岸的不规则山系为东高止山了4要。每个山系的漂亮景点星罗棋布，现代化的交通工具四通八达。喜马拉雅山有许多滑雪7场，还有安全的爬山和河上漂流设备。每个自山脉有其独特的雄伟壮丽和地理特点。茫茫自林海，特别是亚热带森林里生活着各种野生7动物，森林里建有野生动物保护区，游客可g以大饱眼福，观赏百兽千鸟。靠近撒黑亚得里山海岸特别是克拉拉邦，果阿和玛哈施特 们天拉邦的共干地区碧绿的阿拉伯海岸有数不清的美丽的山峡、峡湾、小溪和潟湖，令无数 人的的游客渴望在难得美丽的宁静环境中陶冶性情。印度有7516公里的海岸线，阿拉伯海和孟 一是加拉湾为太阳浴和水上运动爱好者提供舒适优美的场地和 CD环境。 66z
温迪亚山和萨特普拉山是纳玛达河、达菩提河、戈达瓦里河、克里西纳河、玛哈那底河以及漕沃瑞河的发源地。这些河流以及东部的布拉马普特拉河经历了许多古代王朝和文化的兴衰，半岛上到处可以看到古代遗址和残存的纪念碑。印度南部的泰米尔文化甚至早于北部的吠陀文明，泰米尔人以他们的语言比梵语古老而引以自豪。以z
印度位于北纬8.4至37.6度之间，气候差异很大。当喜马拉雅山麓克什米尔山谷的拉达克和旁遮普气温在0度上下徘徊，冷得结冰的时候，半岛南部气温却在30度，热得汗流浃背。每年6到9月为印度的夏季西南季风期，是印度半岛大部分地区农业耕种季节，但滂沱大雨给耕种带来困难。不过从南到北的灌溉系统可以调节这种不利因素。具有创新精神的印度凭着勤劳和智慧已经战胜了季风的肆虐。过去常常遇到饥饿灾年的印度，在养活是1947年独立时三倍的人口的同时，还向外出口粮食和水果。9
在
国家历史要的
[编辑本段] 北美文学网时以
世界四大文明古国之一。公元前2000年前后创造了印度河文明。约在公元前14世纪，原居住在中亚的雅利安人中的一支进入南亚次大陆，并征服了当地土著。约公元前1000年，开始形成以人种和社会分工不同为基础的种姓制度。公元前4世纪崛起的孔雀王朝开始统一印度次大陆，前3世纪阿育王统治时期疆域广阔，政权强大，佛教兴盛并开始向外传播。中世纪小国林立，印度教兴起。自11世纪起，来自西北方向的穆斯林民族不断入侵并长期统治印度。1526年建立莫卧儿帝国，成为当时世界强国之一。1600年英国侵入，建立东印度公司。1757年开始沦为英殖民地，1849年全境被英占领。1857年爆发反英大起义，次年英国政府直接统治印度。1947年6月，英将印度分为印度和巴基斯坦两个自治领。同年8月15日，印巴分治，印度独立。1950年1月26日，印度共和国成立，为英联邦成员国。这
9y
国家政治他u
[编辑本段]在来
印度独立后长期由国大党统治，反对党曾在1977年～1979年和1989年～1991年两次短暂执政。1996年以来印度政局不稳，到1999年先后举行3次大选，产生了5届政府。本届政府于1999年10月第十三届人民院选举产生，以印度人民党为首的24党“全国民主联盟”获胜，瓦杰帕伊为总理。天x
全国民主联盟政府较前几届政府稳定。2政治上谋求国内政局和社会稳定，经济上实c行“第二阶段经济改革”，外 y有交上加速推进全方位大国外交f在m战略。 y我
8月B和
【宪法】 宪法于1950年1月26日生效。规定印度为联邦制国家，是主权的、社会主义的、世俗的民主共和国。采取英国式的议会民主制。公民不分种族、性别、出身、宗教信仰和出生地点，在法律面前一律平等。总统为国家元首和武装部队的统帅，由联邦议会及邦议会组成选举团选出，每届任期五年。总统依照以总理为首的部长会议的建议行使职权。9天
有我 来春
【议会】 由联邦院（上院）和人民院（下院）组成。联邦院共244席，议员由各邦及中央直辖区立法院议员选举产生，任期六年，每两年改选1/3。联邦院每年召开四次会议。宪法规定副总统为法定的联邦院议长。现任联邦院议长帕伊隆·辛格·谢卡瓦特（Bhairon Singh Shekhawat），2002年8月19日就任。人民院为国家主要立法机构，其主要职能为：制定法律和修改宪法；控制和调整联邦政府的收入和支出；对联邦政府提出不信任案，并有权弹劾总统。人民院共543席，由选民直接选举产生，每五年举行一次大选。第13届人民院于1999年10月产生，印度人民党及其盟党获301席，组建政府。2002年，人民院组成为：印度人民党及其盟党306席，印度人民党181席，为第一大党；国大党（英）及其盟党123席，国大党112席；左翼政党及盟党63席，其余政党50席。人民院议长马诺哈尔·乔希(Manohar Joshi)，2002年5月10日就任。 A 有C
h0
【政府】 本届政府于1999年10月13日组成，是以印度人民党为首的24党全国民主联盟政府。现主要内阁成员有：总理阿·比·瓦杰帕伊（Atal Bihari Vajpayee）、副总理兼内政部长阿德瓦尼（L..K.Advani）、外交部长亚施旺特·辛哈（Yashwant Sinha）、财政部长贾斯旺特·辛格(Jaswant Singh)、国防部长乔治·费尔南德斯（George Fernandes）。了
生我
【司法机构】 最高法院是最高司法权2力机关，有权解释宪法、审理中央政府与各邦之间的争议问题等。各邦设有高等法院，县设有县法院。最高法院法官由总统委任。现任第34届首席法官V·N·卡尔（V N Khare），于g2002年12月就任。总检察长由总统任命，其主c要职责是就执法事项向政府提供咨询和建议，完成宪法和法律规定的检察权，对宪法和法律的执行情况进行监督等。现任总检察长S·J·索拉伯吉（Soli J.Sorabjee）。北美文学网4
v
【政党】 （1）印度人民党（Bharatiya Janata Party）：1980年4月成立，其前身是1951年成立的印度人民同盟。自称有350万党员。代表北部印度教教徒势力和城镇中小商人利益，具有强烈民族主义和教派主义色彩。1996年5月大选至今一直保持议会第一大党地位。现任党主席为奈杜(Naidu)。时
（2）印度国民大会党（英迪拉·甘地派）（The Indian National Congress〔Indira Gandhi〕）：简称国大党（英）。据称有初级党员3000万，积极党员150万。1885年12月成立，领导了反对英国殖民统治和争取印度独立的斗争。印独立后长期执政，1969年和1978年两次分裂。1978年英·甘地组建新党，改用现名。该党现为最大在野党，现任主席索尼亚·甘地（Sonia Gandhi）。 d花 何
（3）印度共产党（马克思主义）（Commuonist Party of India〔Marxist〕）：简称印共（马）月。1964年以孙达拉雅和南布迪里巴德为代表的我en一派从印度共产党分出后组成。近年来发展较快，党员增至70万，是印度最大的左翼政党。在西孟加拉邦长期执政。现j任总书记哈·辛·苏吉特（H.S.Surjeet）1aD。 了小0
（4）印度共产党（Communist Party of India）：成立于1920年。有党员54万。1964年分裂，以党主席什·阿·丹吉为首的一派仍沿用印共名称。1981年4月，丹吉因支持英·甘地与党内发生分歧而被开除出党，该党再次分裂。现任总书记Ａ·Ｂ·巴尔丹(A·B·Bardan)。时要
（5）泰卢固之乡党（Telugu Desam Party）o，安mdq得拉邦地方政党。近年来是印度政坛的一支重要力量，1999年大选成为全国最大的地方政说党。在安得拉邦执政，全他一党主席、邦首席部长钱·奈杜（Narra Chandrababu gNaidu）以重国视信息技术著称。中z
来h要
o【重要人物】 何j他 s山
阿卜杜尔·卡拉姆：总统。1931年10月15日生于泰米尔纳杜邦，穆斯林，无党派。早年就读于蒂鲁奇圣约瑟夫学院和马德拉斯技术学院，分别获得理学士和航空技术博士学位。自1958年起，先后在印国防部下属的空军技术开发和生产理事会、航空发展局、印太空研究委员会从事科学研究。是印空间研究组织的缔造者之一。1982年起担任国防研究和发展研究所所长，负责实施印度导弹综合发展计划，研发了大地、烈火、三叉戟、眼镜蛇等自产导弹，被誉为印度的导弹之父。1981年、1990年和1997年分别获印度三级、二级和最高荣誉一级勋章，出任印政府首席科学秘书。著有自传《火之翼》和《印度2020--新千年蓝图》等书，希望通过科技治国，印度在2020年跻身发达国家行列。花xf
阿塔尔·比哈里·瓦杰帕伊：总理。1926年12月生于印度中央邦瓜廖尔一个教师家庭。获文学硕士学位。1951年参加人民同盟创建工作（该同盟为印度人民党的前身）。自1957年起，多次当选印度人民院和联邦院议员。1977年，英·甘地实行紧急状态期间被捕入狱。出狱后，他领导的人民同盟与其他党派共同组建人民党，并在当年的大选中获胜，建立了印度独立后的第一个非国大党政府，瓦任外交部长。1979年访华。1980年，人民党分裂，以瓦为首的原人民同盟脱离人民党，另外组建印度人民党。瓦先后出任该党主席、议会党团领袖。1996年大选后，印度人民党成为议会第一大党，瓦曾出任内阁总理13天。1998年3月再度担任总理。1999年10月，以印度人民党为首的24党全国民主联盟在提前进行的第13届人民院大选中获胜，瓦第三次出任总理。 不u人年以
了不o
国家经济 有如m
[编辑本段]7 为g
独立后经济有较大发展。农业由严重缺粮们达到基本自给。工业已形成较为完整的体系，自给能力较强。印度政府于1991年7月开始进全d1行全面经济改革，放松对工业、外贸和金融北美枫lB部门的管制，1992至1996年经济年均增长这率为6.2％。九·五计划（1997至2002年）期间经北美文学网济年均增长率有所下降，为5.4％。2001年，北美枫这t印出台十·x计划，将2002年-2007年的经济增长率定为北美枫ti年均8％。8w14
2001/2002年度，政府继续深化第二阶段经北美枫一上济改革，加速国有企业私有 北美枫D化，实行包括农产品在内的部分生活必需品B销售自由化，改善投资环境，精北美文学网简政府机构，削减财政赤字。由于农业和服务业的快速发展，印经济增长率达到5.6%，较上年提高了1.6%。 北美文学网小
3y他 一
国 来C内生产总值（花2001/2002年度）花：209400亿卢比
来c国内生产总值增长率（2001/2002年 来f度）：5.6g％ m
货币名称：印度卢比（Rupee）要
汇率（2002年7月）：1美元=48.83卢比 了 日a
年均通货膨胀率（2001/2002年度）：4.3% 一n不A
（资料来源：印度中央统计署2003年1月公布数据）r年mw
年花了o
一
e
【工业】 2001/2002年度，工矿业比 北美枫t上年度增长2.7%，产值33680亿卢比，占国内生产总值的26.4%，是过z去10年以来增长最慢的一年。其中制造业2.4%,年的一电力工业2.7%，矿业1.1%，初级、中间产品和消费品的增长都较上年有大幅减少。近年来，B印度纺织、食品、精密仪器、汽车、软件制q造、航空和空间等新兴1时9工业发展迅速。j
上 国
2主要工业产品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 国
1999/2000 2000/2001 2001/2002来了
煤 n们自 3 人d0000 30963 9 32779如j
铁矿砂7270他7770这 n.a. 83
如原油 31u953243 中3203Bt
天然气（亿立方米）2844.5 294.8 和297.1北美文学网全
北美文学网水泥 9821 C0 9761 10690 dh
钢材 24402927 3064y
化北美文学网肥（氮、磷肥） 14301470年oB n.a.B他
布（亿平方米）236 402 n.a.是
发电量（亿度）48074996 5153t他
汽车（万辆） 87.579.7 83.4u个
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003年度经济概览， n.a.暂无统计）w日 来0
时
【农业】 2001/2002年度农业及相关产业增长率5.7%，产值30205亿卢比，占国内生产总值的24.7%。由于全年降水的时间和地区分配均匀，粮食产量增长6.3%，为2.12亿吨。粮食储备目前已达5000万吨。农村人口约占全国的72％。全国耕地面积约１.6亿公顷，人均0.17公顷。印度是世界第一大产奶国，2001/2002年度牛奶产量约为8460万吨，人均每天226克。印也是世界重要的产棉国和产茶国。4
w6
近些年主要农副产品产量如下（单位：o万吨）： n 一
1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 8了 A
粮食总年大山产量20890 北美文学网 19590 B 21200 我要在
北美文学网稻 米 个e8950 以 84m1小90 8310北美文学网u
小 麦7560 有自6870 7180u
牛 奶7810北美文学网8100s 84601fr9
油 料20701840 2050 v 日d
甘 蔗29920 29920 30010r风
茶83.584.8 84.7e
皮棉（万包）*z 1160970 1010日
黄麻（万包）**10501050 1160r来
注 * 和每包皮棉为17花0公斤。 北美枫B A
** 每包黄麻为1如80公斤。 如他
（资料 来j来源：印度政府2002/2003经济概览）如 为B
g0
【服 务 业】 80年代以来以高于其他产业的速度发展。1993-2000年，印服务业实现了7.1%-10.5%的高速增长。2001/02年度，服务业比上年增长6.5%，总产值为61630亿卢比，占国内生产总值的48.8%。从业人数1994年为1261.8万人，其中85.2%为政府机关和国营部门职工。印度软件制造与服务业近几年来以年均超过50％的增长率迅速发展,2001/02年度软件总产值 98.6亿美元,其中出口78亿美元。政府计划到2008/2009年度，印软件产值将达到870亿美元，出口500亿美元。风j
何 8山
【旅 游 业】 政府已将旅游业作为社会效益良好的创汇产业列入发展重点，该产业已成为全国第六大出口创汇部门。1999年各类旅馆1229家。近年来，外国旅游者人数逐年递增，旅游收入不断增加。受9·11事件影响，印度2001/02年度的外国游客量下降了10.2%，人数242.3万，收入下降8.1%，为29.1亿美元。主要旅游点有阿格拉、德里、斋浦尔、昌迪加尔、纳兰达、迈索尔、果阿、海德拉巴、特里凡特琅等。 8d如
8xnmo
【交通运输】铁路是最大的国营部门， 北美枫来亦为主要运输手段，总长度居亚洲第一位，不世界第四位。铁路部门实行单独预算，每年与中央财政预算一起提交议会讨论通过。近 们z年来，公路运输发展较快，已承担了全国货运量的60%，为世界最大的公路网之一。海运能力居世界第181月8位。 如r
铁路：2001/2002年度铁路线总长6.31万公里，其中电气化铁路1.57万公里，约占铁路总长的25％；2001/2002年度客运量4930亿人公里，货运量为3332亿吨公里，铁路运输总收入3783.7亿卢比，比上年增长8..5%。上
公路：2001/02年度总长约330万公里，其中国家级路5.8万公里。1999/2000年度登记的各种机动车辆约4839万辆，其中客车55.9万辆，货车268.1万辆，公路运输总收入为3393.3亿卢比。目前，公路承担着全国80%的客运量和60%的货运量，全国日平均客运量逾6000万人次。 2
水运：印有港口共约200个，其中12个大说的小港口和184个中小港口。内陆可航行河道总长 d生约1.4万公里，实际使用的不足30%。印有83家海j运公司，其中19家承担远洋运输业务，49家承担近海运输业务，其余两兼。到2002年3月，印的全国水运总能力为3.44亿吨，2001/2002年度印水s运货运总量为2.88亿吨。印还在十·五计划中了uu将主要港口的总货运量提高到4.7亿吨。孟买 k无为全国最大港口，海运的1/5和集装箱运输的1/2 人月经过这里；其他重要海港有加尔各答、马德拉斯、科国钦、 y们果阿等。 Df
空运：印航空公司有：印度国际航空公司、印度航空公司和其他42家私营航空公司。2001/2002年度，旅客数量为3998.3万，货运量为85.4万吨。航线通达各大洲主要城市。全国有德里、孟买、加尔各答、马德拉斯和特里凡特琅五个国际机场；国内机场92个。B自3山说
日7们
【财政金融】 中央和地方财政分立，预算有联邦和邦两级。每年4月1日至次年3月31日为一个财政年度。多年来推行赤字预算以刺激经济发展，中央和邦级地方债务累积占国内生产总值的80%，庞大的赤字已成为经济中主要的不稳定因素。2001/2002年度政府财政赤字相当于国内生产总值的10%。为解决赤字问题，印政府提交了财政责任与预算管理法案，目标是到2006年将中央政府赤字削减到占国内生产总值的2%，并在2011年前大幅降低政府债务规模。3人q
北美文学网春
近年中央和地方财政状况如下（单位：亿卢比）： 7了
99/20002000/012001/02风要
总收入 454261.659796.3 山Dp 人国67099.1的在
总支出 54581.359561.767812.9C北美文学网
财政赤字-18482.6 -19985.3-22871.6大花的
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003经济概览）D说月这
花我y
截至2002年12月，印外汇储备（包括黄金储备和特别提款权）为704亿美元。到2001年9月，外债为996.1亿美元，占国内生产总值的21%，其中短期债务占总债务的比重从1991年3月的10.2%降到2001年9月的2.8%。春 为以
z时
【对外贸易】 近年来，由于进口增加、出口不振，贸易赤字日益严重，成为国际收支失衡的主要原因。近几年外贸情况如下（单位：百万美元）： 以
1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02e北美文学网
进口额55383说c来 59264 57618
出口额37542 4489444915c 一
差 额-17841-14370-12703D 1o
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003印度经济概览）0C
他
2001/02年度，印出口增长0.8%，进口下降0.2%,贸易逆差与非贸易盈余基本相抵，经常账户大体平衡。2002年1月，印政府公布2002-2007年中期出口战略，计划以下列部门为重点将年出口总额增加到800亿美元：工程、机电、电子、纺织、宝石和首饰、化工、农业、皮革和鞋类。该年度印主要进口商品为：珍珠、宝石、电子产品、金银、化工产品、石油及其制品、燃料、资本货物、化肥、钢铁、造纸原料、纸张等。主要出口商品为：珠宝制品、棉纱及棉织品、化工制品、机械及五金制品、石油制品、皮革及其制品、农业及相关半成品、海产品、铁矿砂及矿产品等。主要进出口方向是欧盟（比利时、法国、德国、荷兰、英国）、北美地区（加拿大、美国）及澳大利亚和日本。 国
时他
【外国资本】 印度从1991年起实行积极吸引外资的新政策。1991年至2000年,外国直接投资协议金额达639亿美元。 2001/2002年度，印吸收外国投资52.8亿美元，其中直接投资39亿美元。到2002年10月，对印投资最多的国家分别是：毛里求斯、美、日、英、德、荷兰、韩、法、意和新加坡。吸引外资多的行业是能源、通讯、电子设备、运输业、服务业、化工、旅馆和旅游、纺织业等。
我了大
【外国援助】 印是世界上主要的受援国之一。2001/2002年度获贷款及捐赠总额为2509.5亿卢比，约为51.5亿美元，实际利用外援1755.9亿卢比，约为36亿美元。近年取得外援情况如下（单位：亿卢比）：要c
sv 来如
1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02
国际复兴开发银行 36.787月20 北美枫z.85 中 如803.70 北美枫以
国际开发协会 352.69413.53444.00x月
日本 374.23272.98205.80 北美文学网的x
亚洲开发银行 216.30526.50672.50 d来人全0
德国 41.00 38.6041.20北美枫o
英国 204.10o 472.40 北美枫了 194.40 一f v
美国 7.458.11 12.200人是个
荷兰 13.377.03 33.2 国
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003年度经济概览）fk
34自f
【人民生活】 2001/2002年度印度人均收他入为378美元。据印度官方公布资料，1999/2000年度印生活在贫困线以下的人口为2.6亿，占北美枫f中印总人口的26.1％，其中75%的贫困人口生活在农村，人数1.93亿。印度历届政府将消除贫困 北美枫中作为经济发展的首要任务之一，十·五计划中天制定了减少贫困人口的目标，2007年要将贫困人口数量减少到2.2亿，占北美文学网总人口的19.3%。1999/2000年度印度失业率为7.32%。2000x/01年度，印消费价格指 个v数上升5.2％。到2000年，全国有各类诊疗所和fa为医院4.3万家，登记行医人员50.39万人，登记护士73.7北美文学网万人。2000年和，人口预期寿命为65岁，人口出生率25.8‰，的死亡率8.s5‰。来
大
s们全
国家军事i4
[编辑本段]3j是j
印军前身为英国殖民主义者的雇佣军。1947年印巴分治后始建分立的三军。1978年创建独立的海岸警卫队。总统是名义上的武装力量统帅，内阁为最高军事决策机构。国防部负责部队的指挥、管理和协调。各军种司令部负责拟定、实施作战计划，指挥作战行动。现陆军参谋长上将S. 潘德马那巴汗（S.Padmanabhan），空军参谋长上将S.克里希纳斯瓦米(S.Krishnaswamy)，海军参谋长上将M.辛格（M. Singh）。实行募兵制。陆、海、空三军总兵力为127万，居世界第四位。其中陆军103.5万，分东、南、西、北和中央五大军区，拥有中程导弹，已具备核能力。海军7万，分为西、东二支舰队和南部科钦训练基地；孟买和维沙卡帕特南为最大的海军基地，分别是西、东舰队司令部所在地。1999年新成立远东军区，司令部设在布莱尔港。空军17万，分成西、西南、东、南和中央五个军区，拥有米格29、幻影2000等先进作战飞机。海岸警卫队分西岸、东岸、安达曼和尼科巴三个大队，指挥部分设于孟买、马德拉斯和布莱尔港。另有50多万预备役军人和100多万准军事部队。i
1998年5月，以印度人民党为首的联合政北美文学网府进行核试验,坚持建立最低有效核威慑。 199 生不9年8月17日，印国家安全顾问委员会提出核构想草案，提出印要建立陆基、空基、海基三位一体的的战略核力量，强调印将奉行拥有可信的最 来D低限度的核威慑力的理论，称印拥有核武器自的根本目的是为了阻止任何国家或实体对印9及其部队使用和威胁使用核武器，承诺不首 6u先使用核武器以及不对无核国家动用核武器。 2003年1月，印正式全以面出台核政策框架，成立核指挥机构及其直e属战略部队司令部，核指挥机构由总理、国防、内政、外交和财政部长、各1k4军种参谋长等组成的政治委员会控制。 生j9
2001/2002年度国防预算开支为6200亿卢比（约合132亿美元），比上年增长13.8％。 s说 sB
天
文化教育了 何
[编辑本段]r 日y
A春
【文化】2 g
印度已知的历史可以追溯到公元前2000年，以雅利安人第一次在印度北部定居的移民浪潮为开始。很可能在移民和当地居民之间发生了激烈冲突。但显然是伟大的印度的同化精神和忍耐精神取胜，这种精神一直持续到现在。在以后的一千年间雅利安人遍布整个印度，创造了大部分早期的古典梵语文献，如《梵经》、《吠陀经》、《奥义书》和两大史诗《罗摩衍那》和 《摩诃婆罗多》。 s和和
印度到处是无数历史纪念碑。 一些保存佛祖骨灰的古老佛塔、刻有法令的阿育王柱、铜匾和石碑散布在整个次大陆。玛哈拉施特拉邦等地有雕刻精美的阿旃塔石窟、爱罗拉石窟、艾勒凡塔石窟，东南西北有保存完好的不同建筑风格的雄伟的庙宇，拉加斯坦的城堡和庄园、德里的壮丽的红堡、历史纪念碑、壮观的法特普尔西克里王宫、宏伟美丽的泰姬陵……数说不完的名胜古迹。游客一旦被吸引到神化般的印度来，会让他千眼万眼看不够。我h的
现代印度是一个充满活力的国家， 就如透明的民主性而言，她又是世界上最大的国8说z家，应该为此感到自豪。二战以后独立的第三世界国家中，有很少的国家能象印度那样这么忠实地保护其民主制度。不可讳言，印天度城镇还有穷人，还有贫民窟。但随着印度 北美枫a的科学和工业技术的发展，人民的生活水平 北美枫4会随之提高，到了21世纪，一定会达到中等生活水平。印度的新兴的信息技术工程人员和2信息企业赢得了世界的尊敬。其国民生产总l值增长率仅次于 北美枫9中国。印度人民决心在现代世界崛起，印度脉搏随着人民的青春般的活力跃动。 一说人5人
印度的语言同样多样化。印度有大约2000种，其中55种有自己的文字和文学。有各自巨大的文学宝库的发展完善的19种语言被承认为印度的官方语言。印度的每个宗教在次大陆都有它的信徒。印度的信仰印度的人占绝大多数，为85%，其次为穆斯林、基督教、佛教、犹太教、拜火教、耆那教等，所有不同宗教和谐相处。整个印度次大陆遍布无数的漂亮的庙宇、雄伟的教堂、宏大的清真寺、香火旺盛的佛教庙、犹太教堂和拜火教寺院。印度西部商业特大都市孟买可以说是印度宗教、种族、语言多样性的一个缩影。市内除了以上各教的庙、堂外，还有有著名的亚美尼亚教堂、神道教庙和大同教庙等。k
了要
【教育】的要
实行12年一贯制中小学教育。高等教育共说q38年，包括3年学士课程、2年硕士课程和3年博j士课程。此外还有各类职业技术教育、成人教育等非正规教育。2001/2002年度，印政府教中育经费占国民生产总值的3.99%，成人识字率为65.38%。2000/01年度中小学入学率8中1.6%，但小学缀学率为40.7%，初5中缀学率为53.7%。全国现有254所综合性大学， C1著名的有德里大学、尼赫鲁大学、加尔各答大学等。至20这00/01年度，各级学校、学生和上教师不情况北美文学网如下：2
z l是
如学j校（万所） 在校人数 r他（万人） CiC
高等院校1.04 606* 天是
高级中学12.6 2880 日一
如 初级中学j20.6 北美枫天是4280 来北美文学网
小学63.8711380 d春h0
时
* 为1996年北美文学网数字。北美文学网 来m
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003年度经济他概览）自 8p
来
【新闻出版】 印报刊大多z属私人和财团所有。到1993年底，全国共有968kj种文字的报刊33612种，总发行量为6761.1万份。7印地文和英文报刊分别占总数的37%和16%。报刊中，最大的三家日报依次为《印度时报》、《马拉雅拉娱北美枫国q乐报》和《古吉拉特新闻》。主要印地文报纸有《旁遮普之狮报》、《今天日报》、《印度斯坦报》等；主要英文报纸有《印度斯北美文学网坦时j报》、《政治家报》、《印度教徒报q》、《印度快报》 生以等。3们来
主要新闻机构和通讯社有：（１）新闻发布署：相当于政府中央通讯社，拥有1100多名国内和180多名国外特派记者，电传网覆盖全国各地，向8000余家新闻单位供稿。设有8个地区总分社和27个分社。（２）印度报业托拉斯：印最大通讯社，半官方性质。成立于1947年8月，后兼并印联合通讯社和路透社印度支社，于1949年元旦开业。现设136个国内分社和11个海外分社，员工1000多名，海外记者30多名。英文日发稿量超过10万字。在北京派驻记者。（３）印度联合新闻社：印第二大通讯社，系报业同仁的合股企业。1959年登记成立。现有分社100多个。目前向四个海湾国家及新加坡、毛里求斯提供新闻服务，在迪拜、华盛顿和新加坡设有分社，向22个国家派驻了记者。（４）印度斯坦新闻社：私营，主要编发印地文、马拉地文、古吉拉特文和尼泊尔文的新闻。 为C他
z全印广播电台隶属政府新闻广播部，广播网 北美枫要覆 北美枫这盖全国人口95%。对内使用23种语言播音，日播音75小时15分钟。9拥有100多名国内记者，向7个国家派有常驻记者。不i
全印电视台于1959年9月试播，1976年脱离k全印广播电台成为独立机构，隶属新闻广播年8大部。全国现有18家 y8电视台，6个邦开通了卫D星电视接收。电视网覆盖全国人口的8D6%。北美文学网o
年花pk
o
对外关系Cx
[编辑本段]花n花3
印为不结盟运动创始国之一，历届政府均强调不结盟是其外交政策的基础，努力与所有国家发展关系，力争在地区和国际事务中发挥重要作用。冷战结束后，印政府调整了过去长期奉行的倾向苏联的大国平衡政策，推行全方位务实外交，创造有利于自身发展的持久和平稳定的地区环境。 日们 日1
近年来，随着综合国力不断增强，印加n日为快推进大国外交战略。强调外交为经贸服务2，在保持与俄罗斯及其他独联体国家关系的 dc同时，大力发展与美、日、欧等发达国家的关系，尤其是经贸科技合作，吸收资花金和技术。与东盟及亚太地区国家的关系发 人小展迅速，1996年正式成为东盟全面对话国并参来加东盟地区论坛；积极要求加入亚太经合组织工作组和亚欧会议；1997年参加“孟印缅斯 rx泰经济合作组织”；2000年11月与泰、缅、越1e大、老、柬共同成立“湄公河－恒河合作计划”。1997年倡导建立了环印度洋m有y区域合作联盟。重视能源安全，逐步拓展同日海湾、中亚等能源供应国的交往与合作。到19北美枫小以99年7月，同163个国家有外不交关系。以
印主张在和平共处五项原则及联合国宗旨和原则的基础上建立公正合理、考虑到所有国家利益并能为所有人接受的国际政治新秩序，要求进一步加强南南合作和南北对话，呼吁各国共同创造一个有利于第三世界发展的公正合理的新经济秩序。建议立即扩大安理会，以增加其代表性，实现决策民主化，提高工作效率。 国 d如
1992年联大期间正式向大会提出成为安理会常任理事国的要求，强烈反对美等西方国家提议让德国和日本自动成为安理会常任理事国，要求经过地区协商一致程序讨论发展中国家成为常任理事国的问题，要求联合国先就进入安理会的资格达成一致，然后决定扩大安理会的方案，积极参加联合国维和行动。0 一
1998年5月，以印度人民党为首的联合政z府进行核试验,坚持建立“最低有效核威慑”tB月。 1999年8月17日，印国家安全顾问委员会提出“核构想草案”，强调印将奉行拥有可信的最低限度的核威慑力的理论，称印拥有核武器的根本目的是为了阻止任何国家小或实体对印及其部队使用和威胁使用核武器m如o，承诺不首先使用核武器以及不对花无核国家动用核武器。何无f
在人权问题上，主张推进人权应考虑各 北美枫自国的具体情况，认为最根本的人权是生存的何qc权利；对发展中国家来说，发展问题优于民 Ce主和人权，反对将人权问题政治化，反的对利用m自n人权干涉他国内政，从而损害别国的主u权和统一。北美枫
重视全球环境保护问题，认为环境问题正成为国际上最令人关注的问题，解决这一问题应与发展中国家的发展要求相联系，环保的主要责任应由发达国家承担，建议发达国家和发展中国家联合从事研究和开发来解决环境问题。春不时
关注阿富汗局势，支持维护阿的独立、主权与领土完整，反对外国干涉阿内政。支持阿拉伯人民的正义斗争，认为中东问题的关键是巴勒斯坦问题，近年来，与以色列和巴勒斯坦等阿拉伯国家的关系都有发展。到1999年7月，同163个国家有外交关系。我C
2001年印外交活跃，加速推进全方位大国外交战略。大国关系上，印与俄、美、英等国先后实现高层互访。此外，今年到印访问的还有联合国秘书长安南、德国总理施罗德、日本前首相森喜朗、法国外长维德里纳、蒙古总统巴嘎班迪、希腊总理西米迪斯等访印。在东盟方向，印大力推行“东向政策”，年内，瓦杰帕伊总理先后访问了越南、印尼、马来西亚。B5时
2002年印继续推进全方位大国外交战略。印积极推动与美国的新型伙伴关系，强化同俄罗斯的战略伙伴关系，继续改善与中国的关系，积极发展同东盟关系，并改善南亚周边国家的关系。9·11事件后，印巴关系围绕印要求巴停止跨界恐怖活动持续紧张。2002年，印巴在边界集结重兵对峙。在国际社会的积极斡旋下，10月印巴开始分阶段撤军，两国关系出现缓和迹象，但双方仍未恢复和谈。天
印关注阿富汗局势，支持维护阿的独立、主权与领土完整，反对外国干涉阿内政，积极参与阿战后重建工作。支持阿拉伯人民的正义斗争，认为中东问题的关键是巴勒斯坦问题，近年来，与以色列和巴勒斯坦等阿拉伯国家的关系都有发展。大 有a
天D
【同我国的关系】 1950年4月1日中印建交。1959年西藏叛乱后，中印关系恶化。1962年10月，中印边境发生大规模武装冲突。1976年双方恢复互派大使后，两国关系逐步改善。1988年、1992年、1993年、1994年印度总理拉吉夫·甘地、总统文卡塔拉曼、总理拉奥、副总统纳拉亚南先后访华。1991年、1993年、1994年、1995年、1996年李鹏总理、全国政协主席李瑞环、钱其琛副总理兼外长、乔石委员长、江泽民主席分别访问了印度。1998年，印度以“中国威胁”为借口进行核试验，使中印关系严重受挫。经我反复做工作后，印政府领导人多次表示愿意寻求发展对华关系。1999年，印度外长贾斯旺特·辛格访华, 双方确认，中印关系发展的前提是互不视对方为威胁，基础是两国共同倡导的和平共处五项原则。中印关系由此步入改善和发展的进程。两国在政治、经贸、科技、议会、军事和文化等领域的交流与合作得到加强。的n6何
2000年，时逢中印建交五十周年，两国自关系得到进一步改善和发展。5月28日- 6月3日北美枫上大，应国家主席江泽民邀请，印度总统纳拉亚南对中国进行国事访问。其他重要交往有： 3北美枫7说月6-7日，中印首轮司级安全对话在京举行。 3 们和月29日，应印度人民党（BJP）邀请，中共中央 y小对外联络部部长戴秉国访印。4月28-29日，杨我q个文昌副外长赴印度参加中印边界问题联合工s作小组第12轮会谈。 7月7-12日，印联邦院副议北美文学网长、各国议会联盟理事会主席赫卜杜拉女士说应邀对中国进行友好访问。 8月29、31日，李 d1鹏国委员长在纽约出席千年议长大会期间，分别会见了议联理事会主席、印联邦院副议长赫卜杜拉女士和印人民院议长巴拉约吉。11月13日，中印边界问题外交和军事专家小组第8次7会议在北京以举行，双方交换了不描述边境中段实控线走向的样图，并就双边关系等问题交t7t换了意见。
2002年，中国同印度的关系进一步改善和发展。1月13-18日 应印总理瓦杰帕伊邀请，国务院总理朱镕基对印度进行正式访问，先后访问了阿格拉、德里、孟买和班加罗尔。访问期间，朱总理与瓦杰帕伊总理举行了会谈，并分别会见了印总统纳拉亚南、副总统兼联邦院议长坎特、人民院议长巴拉约吉、人民院副议长赫卜杜拉、反对党领袖、国大党主席索尼娅·甘地等。两国领导人就双边关系及共同关心的地区、国际问题等广泛交换了意见。双方再次确认中印互不构成威胁，并就共同加强经贸等各领域的合作达成广泛共识。双方签署了包括旅游、空间、水文、科技、植物检疫等领域的6个合作文件。6月4日，江泽民主席在阿拉木图出席亚洲相互协作与信任措施会议峰会期间，会见了与会的印总理瓦杰帕伊。江主席对近年来中印关系取得的进展表示肯定，并欢迎瓦杰帕伊总理访华。江主席还就当前印巴局势阐述了中方的立场，希望印巴双方通过对话缓解紧张局势。w3
中印之间存在历史遗留下来的边界问题自。中印边界全长约2000公里，分东、中、西三 个s段。双方争议区共约12.5万平方公里，其中东g段约9万平方公里，中段约2000平方公里，西段约3.3万平方公里。最大的争议在东段，印度z占领着大约9万平方公里的中国土地。1989年6 人月月至2000年4月，中印边界问题联合工作小组共举行十二轮会谈。1993年9月，双方签署了“关 个上于在中印边境实际控制线地区保持和平与安q宁的协定”。1995年，双方互撤了驻扎在中印北美文学网边界东段旺东地区的两对哨所，基本解决了1l1两国军队过于接近问题。1996年江泽民主席访 们v印期间，两国签署了“关于在中印边境实控线地区军事领域建立信任措施的协定”。 为落实两国达成的协定，双方于1994年成立了中印外交和军事专家小组。2000年11月，该小组举行了第八次会议，双方交换了边境中段实控线走向的样图。2001年6月和12月，该小组举行了第九和第十次会议。2002年3月、6月和10月，该小组举行了第十一、十二和十三次会议。上
来e
【同俄罗斯等国家的关系】 印与前苏联于1947年建交。1955年后，苏联开始向印提供巨额经济、军事援助。1971年，两国签订“和平友好合作条约”，建立极为密切的双边关系。1991年底苏联解体后，印大力开展与俄罗斯和其他各独立国家的接触交往。1993年，俄罗斯总统叶利钦访印，两国签订了“印俄友好合作条约”、“印俄防务合作协定”和“印俄贸易合作议定书”等九项协定。1994年，俄罗斯副总理尤里·亚罗夫、国家杜马主席里普金、总理切尔诺梅尔金先后访印，印度总理拉奥实现访俄，促使两国在政治、经济、军事、文化、科技等各个领域的关系迅速恢复和发展。1995－1997年，印俄关系继续回升。1997年3月，印度总理高达访问俄罗斯。俄明确提出两国建立“战略伙伴”关系，重申支持印在克什米尔问题上的立场和成为联合国安理会常任理事国的要求。10月，印国防部长亚达夫访问俄罗斯。俄重申不向巴基斯坦出售武器，双方同意将两国长期军事技术合作协议有效期延长至2010年。1998－1999年，印俄关系全面提升。1998年5月，印核试后，俄反对对印进行经济制裁；12月，俄总理普里马科夫对印进行正式访问。 1999年5月，俄总统特使普里科德克和印外长辛格互访，双方主要讨论了科索沃问题和双边关系，呼吁北约停止对南联盟的军事行动，重申将建立战略伙伴关系，俄方承诺将两国军事合作提高到最高水平，将向印提供印要求的所有武器。春
2000年，印俄关系得到进一步加强。2001年，印俄关系继续稳步发展。2002年，印俄关系继续得到巩固，双方进一步深化军贸和军技合作。wl北美文学网
这是
【同美国的关系】 50年代～60年代，两国关系密切。1971年印与前苏联签订“和平友好合作条约”并发动肢解巴基斯坦的第三次印巴战争后，印美关系严重受挫。80年代后期关系有所恢复，近年来得到进一步发展。目前，美是印最大的贸易伙伴和投资国。1998年，印美关系因印进行核试而受到严重影响。尔后印外长辛格与美副国务卿塔尔博特举行了多轮会谈，两国关系有了很大的缓和和发展。风是
2000年，印度积极拓展同美国关系。2001 l风年，印度继续巩固印美关系发展的势头。2002年，印积极推动同美国关系，双方在军事领m如j域的交流这与合 一有作发展迅速。l他
春时
【同欧盟国家的关系】 2000年，印与2欧盟建立首脑会晤机制，成为继中国之后第5二个与欧盟建立类似机制的发展中国家。欧盟是印最大的贸易伙伴，双方 rp贸易额占印外不贸的近30%。9
2002年，印与欧盟国家关系进一步发展。x
3d生
【同东盟国家的关系】 印度同东南亚国家地理位置相近，有悠久的历史关系，但因印1970-1990年间外交上推行亲苏政策及双方在柬埔寨问题上存在分歧，印与东南亚国家政治关系一般。九十年代，印积极推行东向政策，重视加强同东盟各成员国的交流与合作。1996年印成为东盟全面对话伙伴国，加入东盟地区论坛。1997年参加孟印缅斯泰经济合作组织；2000年11月与泰、缅、越、老、柬共同成立湄公河－恒河合作计划。上 北美枫5
2002年，印度和东盟举行首次领导人会北美枫w他议，建立印度--东盟10+1对话机制，标志双方关系进入一个新阶段。 rb g
年为这
【同巴基斯坦的关系】 1947年8月印巴分治后始终不睦，并于1948年、1965年和1971年三次爆发全面战争。1971年12月断交，1976年7月复交。80年代关系有所缓和，近年来因克什米尔争端又不时出现紧张局面，边境交火事件不断。双方领导人和官员为改善关系进行过多次对话和谈判。1992年底，印度发生阿约迪亚毁寺事件后，在巴引起强烈反响，导致印巴关系下降。1993年，两国关系因孟买爆炸案和哈兹拉特巴尔清真寺等事件继续恶化。1994年，印巴关系因相互指责并驱逐对方外交人员而持续紧张。1995年，印巴就印控克什米尔地区沙拉尔谢立夫城的圣陵和清真寺被毁事件相互指责，双边关系更趋紧张。1996年，印巴关系稍有缓和，但未取得实质性进展。1997年，印巴恢复政治对话和总理会晤，两国关系出现缓和势头。1998年，印巴相继进行核试验，展开核军备竞赛，两国关系急剧紧张。1999年2月，印总理瓦杰帕伊与巴总理谢里夫签署了《拉合尔宣言》，双边一度缓和。但4月印巴试射导弹，5月两国在印控克什米尔地区卡吉尔发生激烈冲突，印巴关系再次由缓和趋向恶化。12月，一架印民航班被劫持，印外长指责巴与此事有牵连。C
2000年，印巴关系处于僵持状态，年底气氛有所缓和。2001年，印巴关系以“9·11”事件为界线呈前缓后紧之势。2002年，印巴关系仍处于紧张对峙状态。C
xz
【同其他邻国的关系】 与南亚邻国各方面联系较多，但也存在许多矛盾。1997年，印对邻国政策做出重大调整，推行“多予少取”的“古杰拉尔主义”政策，与各国关系普遍得到明显改善。1998年，印度核试引发南亚地区核军备竞赛，导致南亚局势急剧紧张，南亚其他国家对此仅作谨慎表态。1999年，印巴在克什米尔地区爆发卡吉尔冲突，南亚局势恶化，南亚其他国家均对此表示关注，呼吁印巴两国保持克制和冷静。2002年，印与南亚其他邻国关系继续有所发展。了北美文学网
年af9
v个
风土人情北美文学网北美枫
[编辑本段]要
4大传统仪式走遍全世界，入境随俗是不变的真理。印度人有4大传统仪式，分别是出生、葬礼、婚姻和普迦仪式。除此之外，在印度旅行，你一定要知道印度的10项特殊习惯和6大禁忌，保你玩得开心、一路平安。 为如时
0 A
出生 v时
在印度的传统上十分重男轻女，因为女m儿结婚时，父母必须准备一笔丰富的嫁妆，如果没有嫁妆，女儿是嫁不出去的。而这上对于贫穷人家而言，确实是一项庞大的负担。了
印度人如果生下的是女儿时，会用拍手示意，代表两手空空来也。但如果生的是儿子时，那就大大不同了，家人会立刻敲锣庆祝，表示儿子将来娶老婆时，可以带来响当当的嫁妆。要
印度人庆祝小孩出生与平安成长的方式 北美枫全，就是到寺庙进行“普迦仪式”、唱颂祈祷7文，北美枫m4然后和亲朋好友举行餐宴。
印度小孩出生后，父母都会找人为他们占卜，小孩的名字多半取自英雄或神祇。小孩的生辰八字尤其受到重视，因为这可以决定小孩未来的婚姻对象。j
d2了
葬礼 国我他
印度教徒死亡时，都会在河坛举行火葬仪式。印度教徒去世后，家人会以黄色或白色绢布包裹尸体，然后放在两根竹制担架上，以游行方式抬到河坛火葬地点。 国
传统上，将死者抬送到火葬场的任务，应该由家属担任，但是现在大部份的人都交给专人处理。在印度，专门处理丧葬事宜的人，都是被视为种姓地位最低的贱民。风以
一般送葬的仪式都非常简单，但是比较k富有的人家，可能会请乐师在前面演奏，浩g浩荡荡地游行。火葬前，死者的长子必须手 6大持油灯绕行遗体3次，当火葬柴堆被点燃时，死者长子必须将头发剃光，只在后脑勺留一花小撮，然后到全tv河里沐浴净身。火葬结束后，死者骨灰会被扫到河9里，代表灵魂已经脱离躯壳、中得到解脱。 v
天月
婚礼um
印度人的婚礼是社会地位的代表，也是一生中最重大的仪式。印度青年到了适婚年龄，都会由父母代为寻找社会阶级、语言、区域、背景相同，以及星相可以配合的对象。y
印度婚礼仪式相当繁琐，结婚之前，双k方家长会透过充当媒人的祭司讨论嫁妆事宜 6r，女方必须答应男女提出的嫁妆数量后，双这方才选定黄道吉日、开始筹备婚礼。婚礼前一天，新娘必须根据传统化妆方式，开始抹g油、沐浴、更衣、梳头、画眼线、抹唇砂、 6q并且在脚上涂以红色、在额头点红色蒂卡、来在下巴点黑痣，接着还要用植物染料在手脚上绘饰汉那图案，然后洒香水、配戴首饰和发饰，最后是把牙齿染黑、嚼槟榔、擦口红，才算大功告成。me国 北美枫不
婚礼当天，新郎官骑着一匹白马浩浩荡自荡地来到新娘家。这时女方家里已经架起火坛，双方亲友在祭司念诵的吉祥真言中，绕行火坛祝祷。之后、新娘在女伴的簇拥下走年天n到火坛前面，由祭司将新娘的纱丽和新郎的围巾系天在一起，代表婚姻长长久久。花
印度婚礼的晚宴是在新娘家里进行，一对新人坐在婚宴中接受亲友的祝福。婚礼当天晚上新郎是在新娘家过夜，翌日才将新娘迎娶回家。e了
是不g
普迦仪式（Puja） 何0
普迦是印度教中向神祇膜拜的仪式，普迦仪式必须由祭司担任。仪式中信徒会将神像装饰后抬出寺庙游行庆祝，并且奉献鲜花、椰子、蒂卡粉……等供品。最后再由祭司手持油灯，在神像前面进行“阿拉提（arati）”。如
们“阿拉提”的过程中，信徒用手轻轻覆盖祭了人的司手中的灯火，然后在自己的眼睛上碰触一下，代表接受神祇赐予的力量。们
通常在普迦仪式结束后，信徒可以分到z一些祭祀过的鲜花、蒂卡粉或水，称为“波年2b拉沙中达（Prasada）”。所以在印度，只来要看到印度人从寺庙膜拜出来，额头上几乎都涂有红色或白色9的粉末。 y们 d是
0了
传统服饰w9
在印度，可以由不同的服饰和装扮，看 1f出当地人D的宗教信仰 个自、种族、阶级、区域等。s是
男性包头巾： d小 g
印度男性多半包有头巾，这种头巾称为Turban。头巾有各式各样的包裹方法，其中锡克教男性头巾，具有特定样式。大北美枫
根据传统，锡克人从小到大都必须蓄头在发、留胡须，并且包着头巾。小孩头巾样式北美文学网比较简单，只用黑布绑成发髻形状。成年人天的5头自巾样式比较复杂，首先必须用黑色松紧带将t无k长发束成发髻，然后再以一条长约3公尺的布z，裹和成头巾，样式为两边对c衬成规则状。锡克人头巾色彩自繁多，有的人甚至搭配衣服颜色。e北美文学网
印度男性多半穿著一袭宽松的立领长衫k（Tunic），搭不配窄脚的长裤（Dhoti），拉贾斯坦地区男性，上裤子是以一条白色布块裹成的，头上的布巾，花样变化极多，色泽鲜明。 北美枫中 何
女性穿纱丽：Bk花9
印度妇女传统月服饰是纱丽（Sari），纱丽是指一块长达15码北美文学网以上的布料，穿著时以披裹的方式缠绕在身 来为上。印度妇女擅长利用扎、围、绑、裹、缠n、披……等技巧，使得纱丽在身上产生不同x的变化。 生自
拉贾斯坦妇女的纱丽较短，只有披覆在头上，但是彩色缤纷、镶有金银绣边。拉贾斯坦妇女的上衣，有点像似没有领子的中国凤仙装，下身是一条滚边的及地长裙。f
纱丽穿著方式：x北美文学网
印度妇女传统服饰，是用一块长达3公如尺的布包裹出来的，这块布称为纱丽（Sari）以。印度纱丽的穿著方式变化繁多，不同的种族、区域、信仰，会有许多不同的色彩、质北美文学网感和穿裹方式。印度妇女穿著纱g丽时，上衣是一件短袖、露出肚脐的紧身衣2（Choli），下身是一条及地的直筒衬裙（Ghagra）。年时他北美枫
纱丽最基本的穿著方式，可以分为以下自几个步骤:自说国春
1. 首先拉住纱丽布左边一端，塞进右侧的衬裙裙头。u
2. 将纱丽布由右至左环绕下围，约三、四圈。 ds 生的
3. 接着用纱丽布在右前方折成四 来C折，并且塞入裙头。的月
l生 4. 然后将剩余布块，由左后方绕过右边腋这下，披向左边肩膀上。1国何no时
5. 最后直接将纱丽布披在肩上、或披覆在头上。9j
7
自然资源i们
[编辑本段]是年p是
印度矿产资源丰富，铝土储量和煤产量均占B世界第五位，云母出口量占世界出口量的60%了C在。截至1996年底，印度主要资源可采储量估计7为：煤463.89亿吨（不含焦煤），铁矿石97.54亿说吨，铝土22.53亿吨，铬铁矿1.24亿吨，锰矿石65不50万吨，锌589万吨，铜352万吨，铅136万吨，石 个r灰石684.77亿不吨，磷酸盐8100万吨，黄金86吨，石油8.96亿吨fzA，天然气6970亿立方米。此外，还有云母、石D膏、钻石及钛、钍、铀等矿藏。森林覆2盖率说为21.9%。 北美枫a
India (Hindi: भारत Bhārat; see also other Indian languages), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, the most populous liberal democracy in the world.[disputed][13] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi).[14] It borders Pakistan to the west;[15] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean.了
0
Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[16] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern nation state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.不他 一
们 北美枫e
India is the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy;[17] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[18] illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual,们 and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity来 of wildlife in a varie不ty of protectedu habitats.年b何 来e
风如
The name India (pronounced /ˈɪndiə/) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[19] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[20] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciation (help·info), /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status.[21] Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ (info)), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[22]u
z
ef
History9
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India gi
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization,[23] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BC. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[24]4不A
C 8大
自 一
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century.In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great.[25] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age."[26][27] Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas,这 Rashtrakutas, Hoysa北美文学网las, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. Science, engineering, a来rt, literature, astronomy, and philosophy f9lourished under the patronage of these kings. 北美枫B上
北美文学网人8是
Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal Empire. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their Kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.[28] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the India's First War of Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the British Company's control but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct rule of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire.0 A
j 为p
v 有人
Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience.[29] Finally, on 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned with independent governments for the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation state of Pakistan.[30] Three years later, on 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[8]y在
A北美枫
Since independence, India has suffered from religious violence, casteism and insurgencies in various parts, but has been able to control them through tolerance and constitutional reforms. Terrorism in India is also a major security problem, especially in Jammu and Kashmir, North-east India and recently in major cities like Delhi and Mumbai, 2001 Indian Parliament attack being the most prominent one. India has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test.[31] This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state.[31] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[32] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.[17]月 一
9e
月 国
Government个 A
Main article: Government of Indiaw来h无
National Symbols of India[33] 说全j
Flag Tricolour y4
Emblem 们Sarnath Lion Capi的tal g2
Anthem Jana Gana Mana f他
Song Vandē Mātaram 春 国
Animal Royal Bengal Tiger 了如
Bird Indian Peafowl m
Flower 说5生Lotus r说们
Tree Banyan 个人大7
Fruit Mango 北美枫月我北美文学网
Sport Field hockey 北美枫k
Calendar Saka 以
The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.[34] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[35] India has a quasi-federal form of government[36] and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. 国在
来n是
The President of India is the official head of state[37] elected indirectly by an electoral college[38] for a five-year term.[39][40] The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers.[37] The Prime Minister is appointed by the President[41] and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[37] g s0
A个
The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[42] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[43] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[43] The 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[43] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, the community is not adequately represented.[43]月
n个们k
The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[44]了我A
x北美文学网
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[45] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[46] It is judicially independent,[45] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.[47] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[48]北美文学网
他
来f
Politics dk
Main article: Politics of India春
y
The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.India, at the federal level, is the most populous democracy in the world.[13][49] For most of its democratic history, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC).[50] State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[51]在o
e是
The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[52] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.[53]r A
月c
他wp
Foreign relations and militaryhu时
Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forcesy北美文学网
C s无
The Sukhoi-30 MKI is part of the Indian Air Force.Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.[54] India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[55] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought four wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. g北美枫
g
vh生
In recent years, relations between the United States and India, have improved. Shown here are PM Manmohan Singh and President George W. Bush exchanging handshakes in March, 2006.In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN[56], SAARC, and the WTO.[57] India is a founding member and long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.[58] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia, and Africa.个我x
一时
India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force.[8] Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy[59] and has a "strong nuclear non-proliferation record" according to the White House,[60] despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.花v
生一北美枫
人7全是
Subdivisionsy
Main article: Subdivisions of India全 A
India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories.[50] All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.[61] Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. There are nearly 600 districts in India.[62] The districts in turn are 生g further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.北美文学网n何9
风全
n的说在
Administrative divisions of India, including 28 states and 7 union territories.States: 8的
以大
zAndhra Pra rpdesh 全z中 g
Arunachal Pradesh 国y
Assam r
Bihar 春 1有
Chhatti月sgarh 人要 为u
Goa 不个2
Gujarat w月y
Haryana 个
Hi人x天machal天 Pradesh 花月
Jammu and Ka说有oshmir 北美文学网 北美枫人
Jharkhand 个我国
Karnataka 的c
Kerala 和了
Madhya P自radesh u
Maharashtra u 为风
Manipur 0
Meghalaya 北美文学网 sw
Mizoram 国 来在
Nagaland 4k
Orissa 北美枫 dq
Punjab r要
Rajasthan t如
Sikkim 要m
Tamil Nadu 我无的
Tripura A 国
Uttar Pradesh 8全个
Uttarakhand 一春
West Bengal ie
Union Territories: 一
何
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 春
Chandigarh z 1和
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 在0
D4aman and Diu 我国9w日
Lakshadweep 来
National Capital Territory of Delhi
Puducherry 了 A
国 来风
j这
Major Cities:[63] Mumbai • Delhi • Bangalore 自• Kolkata • Chennai • Ahmedabad • Hyderabad • (others)是上
f了
w上e
Geography们 日p
Main article: Geogrkaphy of India lr
See also: Geological history of India and Climate of India x2
个
Topographic map of India.India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[64]要
4自
India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[65] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[65] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast through, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[66] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[67] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[68] The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[69] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[70] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[71] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[72] 国花3
一f
India's coast is 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometers (3,370 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometers (1,301 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[14] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.[14] 为r说自h
A
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[73] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[74] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[75] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[76] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[77]9是
全
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[78] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[79][80] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[78] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[81]3n说 北美枫这
在不花
为1i
Flora and fauna s中春
Main articles: Flora of India and Fauna of IndiaBo 1自
4
The Indian peacock is India's national bird.India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[82] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[83][84] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[85] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. A大
e
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[86] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[85] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[82] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[87] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.天4
2n大s
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[88] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[89] was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[90] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[91]o9
有k ss
是 生小
Economy他c
Main article: Economy of India天D
See also: Economic development in India 个 s小
以
The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange.For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.[32] Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$300 billion in March, 2008,[92] while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.[93] Privatization of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[94] With a GDP growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world.[95] India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$1.089 trilmlion. When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PP 北美枫山P), India has the 个qworld's fourth largest GDP at US$4.726 trillion. In 个小dia's per capita income (nominal) is US$977, while its 自per c5apita ( 们小PPP) is US$2700.9
8中 1月
India has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in agriculture and related industries; 28% in services and related industries; and 12% in industry.[8] Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles. Along with India’s fast economic growth comes its growing demand for energy. According to the Energy Information Administration, India is the sixth largest consumer of oil and third largest consumer of coal.[96]自 来g
i
Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[97] Income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini coefficient: 36.8 in year 2004[11]), though it has been increasing of late. Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income.[98] Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line.[18]的来
北美枫我天
More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important outsourcing destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for medical tourism.[99] India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore.[50]这 l8
北美文学网 北美文学网要
In 2007, estimated exports stood at US$140 billion and imports were around US$224.9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. While crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the United States, the European Union, and China.时 有月
大我B
i
DemographicsC这
Main article: De月mographics of India了tl了
See also: Religion in India and Languages of India 时上
9
Population density map of India.With an estimated population of 1.13 billion,[8] India is the world's second most populous country. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), Hyderabad and Ahmedabad.[50]不o大
h个
India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.[50] India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[100] is the official language of the union.[101] English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language.'[6] The constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.[102]要 国
有B
Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others.[103] Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population.[104]B上个
天B何
India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[8] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%);[105] Bihar has the lowest (47%).[106] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.[8]fhC
上春
风
我g 生要
v是
Cities by population Rank Core City State Pop. Rank Core City State Pop. view • talk • editj 北美文学网9
i 8在
Mumbai 国花这
du v
Delhi我们 北美枫a
们k
1 Mumbai Maharashtra 13,662,885 11 Jaipur Rajasthan 2,997,114 f花在
2 Delhi Delhi 11,954,217 12 Lucknow Uttar Pradesh人AB 2,621,063 w年
3 Bangalore Karnataka 5,180,533 13 Nagpur Maharashtra 2,359,331 他
4 Kolkata West Bengal 5,021,458 14 Indore Madhya Pradesh 1,768,303 c 为t
5 Chennai Tamil Nadu 4,562,843 15 Patna Bihar 12,753,543 e
6 Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh 3,980,938 16 Bhopal Madhya Prakdesh 1,712, d不355 不们
7 Ahmedabad Gujarat 3,867,336 17 Thane Maharashtra 1,673,465 上t
8 Pune Maharashtra 3,230,322 18 Ludhiana Punjab 1,662,325 g9
9 Surat Gujarat 3,124,249 19 Agra Uttar Pradesh 1,590,073 s年r
10 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 3,067,663 20 Vadodara Gujarat 1,487,956 x说小m
2008 estimation[107] 春 8q
k
我们
日有 一
4北美枫
Culture个 为5
Main article: Culture of IndiayC
m4
The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[108]India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[109] and cultural pluralism.[110] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants.f人i的
h5 国
Multicultural concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements.[111]花说i
生无
Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation. 83
9
Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres - North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Highly regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. lB
B们0
Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Bihar and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[112]上要
Blz
Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[113] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[114]北美文学网u
e全
u月
Scene from Kalidasa's The Recognition of Śakuntalā as painted by Raja Ravi Varma.The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[115] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[116] Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[117]r7
何
The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down.[118] These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[119] – and the Tamil language Sangam literature.[120] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913. A全
在u
Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).[121] Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese.[122]北美枫人1h
y大
Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. v A
ju
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi.[123] India has three national holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.i个
北美文学网p
Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, al在though urban families now prefer the nuclear family sgt这ructure due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by 小traditional joint family system.以 有f
春
t是
Sports个我大
Main article: Sports of IndiaC
India's national sport is field hockey although cricket is the most popular sport in India. In some states, particularly those in the northeast and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, football (soccer) is also a popular sport.[124] In recent times, tennis has also gained popularity. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is also home to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai. A
上天
See also自r
[hide]v • d • e India topics 春 生时
春
Basic topics · Alphabetical index4 of topics 北美文学网以
的要
History Overviews Timeline · Economics · Lingu年来月istics · Maritime · Military · Science and technology · Mathematics · Astronomy n· Metallurgy 0
风 为上
Pre-colonial Stone Age · Indus Valley Civilization · Indo-Aryan migration · Vedic period · Mahajanapadas · Magadha · Middle kingdoms · Islamic sultanates · Hoysala · Cholas · Kakatiya · Vijayanagara · Mughals · Marathas · European trade 花f
4
Colonial East India Company · Plassey · 1857 Rebellion li· British Raj · Railways · Economy · Army · Zamindari 9· Social changes · Political reforms · Princely states 9· Partition of Bengal · Independence movement · 1943 famine · World War II · Partition 北美文学网
4x
Republic Integration · Non-Aligned Movement · Five-Year Plan · Sino-Indian War · Indo-Pakistani wars · Green Revolution · White Revolution · Naxal Insurgency · Smiling Buddha · Space program · The Emergency · Khalistan movement · Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) · Economic Reforms · Pokhran-II 7要
d一 生r
月x
Government Agencies · Constitution · Foreign relations · Fundamental Rights, Principles and Duties · High Courts · Intelligence · Law · Law enforcement · Military · Missions · Parliament · Symbols · Supreme Court 生时
w的o
Politics Censorship · Elections · Human rights · Nationalism · Political parties (Congress • BJP • BSP • CPI • CPM • NCP) · Reservations · Scandals · Scheduled groups · Secularism g
c7
Geography Climate · Climatic regions · Ecoregions · Fauna · Flora · Geology · Islands · Mountains · Rivers · Subdivisions (Cities • Districts • Regions • States and territories) · Valleys 日中7
来D
Economy Agriculture · Communications · Companies · Edu这cation · Exchanges (BSE • NSE) · Healthcare · Income · Poverty · Obesity · Standard of livineg · Reserve Bank · Rupee · Tourism · Labour · Forestryx · Fishing · Livestock · Transport · Energy (Solar •c Wind • NuclDear) 他
t
Culture Arts and entertainment · Architecture · Cinema · Cuisine · Dance · Demographics · Dress · Folklore · Holidays · Languages · Literature · Media · Martial arts · Music · Religion · Sport · Wine 要 1k
A如
Education Literacy · Department of Higher Education · C 有0entral Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) · Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) · Sarva 全p大Sh 来如iksha Abhiyan · University Grants Commission · All India 北美文学网Council for Technical Education (AICTE) · Institutes of TeDchnology / Management / Science · more C为hw
个9
Portal 人和o
们
北美枫z人5为
生D
Notes人个天u
^ State Emblem -Inscription. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved on 2007-06-17. 一在
^ National Anthem - Know India portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-31. 个风
^ National Song - Know India portal. National Informatics 生无 Centre(NIC) (2007). Retrieved on 20077-08-30. 说x
^ CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA — VOLUME XII. Constituent Assembly of India: Debates. parliamentofindia.nic.in, National Informatics Centre (24 January 1950). Retrieved on 2007-06-29. “The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it.” 的h5
^ The Union: Official Language. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-24. 日来花f
^ a b Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L., dated 27 April, 1960. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved on July 4, 2007. h8 为s
^ Official Languages Resolution, 1968, para. 2. e如
^ a b c d e f g h CIA Factbook: India. CIA Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 来 来来
^ a b India at a Glance. Know India Portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved on 2007-12-07. 春年y国
^ CIA - The World Factbook - India wy风
^ a b Field Listing - Distribution of family income - Gin他i index. Tqhe World Factbook. CIA (15 May 2008). Retrieved on 2008-06-06. l A
^ Total Area of India (PDF). Country Studies, India. Libr北美文学网ary of Congress – Federal Research Division (December 200B4). Retrieved on 2007-09-03. “The country’s exact size 北美枫tis subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The 北美枫3 Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square北美文学网 kilometers and the total land area as 3,060,500 square kilometers; the United Nations lists the total ar花ea as 3,287,263 square kilometers and total land area as 2,如973,190 square kilometers.” B我这
^ a b Country profile: India. BBC (9 January 2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-21. y
^ a b c Kumar et al. 2006, p. 531 Bt自
^ Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered territory. 要
^ Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. 了北美枫
^ a b India is the second fastest growing economy. Economic Research Service (ERS). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved on 2007-08-05. 不在他
^ a b Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: August 25, 2007 是 有7
^ "India", Oxford自 English Dictionarm71y, second edition, 2100a.d.e Oxford U月niversityn Press 北美枫生e的
^ Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573. vy
^ Official name of the Union. Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. “Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.” jhj
^ Hindustan. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. 是
^ Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley. Harappa (1996). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. u
^ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, p. A107. ISBN 0070483698. 来s
^ Jona Lendering. Maurya dynasty. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. r自
^ Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-10-03. 春
^ Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 花C
^ History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947). National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.” 8人0
^ (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. A 有以
^ (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley在 Limited, p. 322何B6.北美文学网 ISB上N 0-7513-5911 北美枫有-4. 月
^ a b India Profile. Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) (2003). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. 了j
^ a b Montek Singh Ahluwalia (2002). "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?" (MS Word). Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved on 2007-06-13. 了北美文学网
^ National Symbols of India. High Commission of India, London. Retrieved on 2007-09-03. 是i
^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Longest Constitutional Document", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 4. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. 北美文学网
^ Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly 19 (3): 411–434. doi:10.1080/01436599814325. at p. 421 风以
^ Wheare, K.C. (1964). Federal Government, 4th edi3g时tion, Oxford University Press, 28. 花j
^ a b c Sharma, Ram (1950). "Cabinet Government in India". Parliamentary Affairs 4 (1): 116–126. f
^ Election of President. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college” 1这
^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 112. 时 生p
^ Tenure of President's office. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office” 8w北美文学网
^ Appointment of Prime Mi在nister and Council of Ministers. The Constitution Of India.上 Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The Prim全z全e Minister shall be appointed by the President and the othemv山r Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advi北美文学网ce of the Prime MinDister.” 4
^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Devel3大山opment of Cl Its Laws and Constitution, 22nd edition, Stevenls and Sons, 127. 全为日
^ a b c d Our Parliament A brief description of the Indian Parliament. www.parliamentofindia.gov.in. Retrieved on 2007-06-16. 9来
^ Matthew, K.M.. Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama, pg 524. ISBN 8190046187. w4
^ a b Neuborne, Burt (2003). "The Supreme Court of India". International Journal of Constitutional Law 1 (1): 476–510. doi:10.1093/icon/1.3.476. at p. 478. 年h这
^ Supreme Court of India. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. National Informatics Centre. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. 时
^ Sripati, Vuayashri (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Const 有他itutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back 花to See Ahead (1950-2000)". American Universit以y International Law Review 14 (2)月: 413–496. a说t pp. 423-424 0
^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 314. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-11-02. 为xh年
^ World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations: Population Division. Retrieved on 2007-12-06. 了 s5
^ a b c d e Country Profile: India (PDF). Library of 和Congress - Federal Research Division (December 2004). Retri花eved on 2007-06-24. 个
^ Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications, 118, 143. ISBN 978-8185402178. vz
^ Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. The effective space of party competition. London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved on 2007-10-01. g在
^ Hermann, Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A H 来vistory of India. Routledge, 384. ISBN我C年 978-0415329 dg194. te一 一
^ Significance of the Contribution of India to the Struggle Against Apartheid1 by M. Moolla 9i
^ History of Non Aligned Movem在ent. R和etrieved on 2007-08-23. q风
^ http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg2008.cfm 上f
^ http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/genf/50205.pdf 春春
^ India and the United Nations. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. oj
^ Brig. Vijai K. Nair (Indian Army). No More Ambigiuity: India's Nuclear Policy (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-06-07. f
^ India's Nuclear profile. India Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Responding to Critics. White House: Press Release (March 8, 2006). Retrieved on 2007-10-05. “India has been a peaceful and vibrant democracy with a strong nuclear nonproliferation record” 何
^ States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Constitution of India. Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. Retrieved on 2007-10-31.; See also: Political integration of India 国i
^ Districts of India. Government of India. National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-11-25. 8自北美文学网
^ Cities with Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) classification A-1. See Status of Indian cities for details. "No.2(21)/E.II.(B)/2004". 2006. Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure. Government of India. Retrieved on 18 November, 2004 是 v
^ Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 170-171 何我0
^ a b Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 172-173 何z
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, l天p. 7 全81i
^ Prakash et a北美文学网l. 2000, p. 上445 fxCo
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 11
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 20北美枫国007, p. 8 如北美枫
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, pp. 9-10
^ India's northernmost point is the region of the disputeod Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princeely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently admini中stered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to it中s northernmost kd point. 北美枫如 为自
^ (Government of India 2007, p. 1) 要o
z^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 15 DB日
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 16 个7
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 17 C
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 12 天 v
^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 13 r
^ a b Chang 1967, pp. 391-394
^ Posey 1994, p. 1人全们18. 说j
^ Wolpert 2003人t7, p. 4. 我B
月
^ Heitzmann & Worden 1996, p. 97. 一年 来风
^ a b Dr S.K.Puri. Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. 一f
^ Botanical Survey of India. 1983. Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24. D
^ Valmik Thapar, Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705 花我这
^ a这 b Tritsch, M.E. 2001. Wiuldlife of India Harper Collins, London. 19是2 pages. ISBN 0-如00-711062-6 kj时
^ K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota 的这
^ Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp. 要
^ The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Helplinelaw.com (200o0). Retrieved on 2007B-06-16. 北美枫个风
^ The Forest Conservation Act, 1980. AdvocateKhoj.com (2007). Retrieved on 2007-11-29. C们
^ Biosphere Reserve们s of India. Retrieved o自n 2007-06-17. j全
^ The List of Wetlands of International Importance (PDF) p. 18. The Secretariat of the Convention of on Wetlands (June 4, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. 了 s月
^ Weekly Statistical Supplement. Reserve Bank of 生y India (June 1, 2全g天007). Retrieved on 2007-076-11. 2 v
^ "Revenue surge boosts fiscal health". Business Standard. Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
^ Mohan, T.T.Ram. "Privatization in India: Issues and Evi4dence" (PDF). Indian 说Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. Retrieved on 2007-08-03. 自 日e
^ Quarterly estimates of gross domestic product, 2006-07. Government of India. Retrieved on 2007-05-31. e是
^ EIA Country Profiles: India (2008-06-16). Retrieved on 2008-06-25. sv d春
^ "Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India’s Success". World Bank (2006). Retrieved on 2007-04-28. 为如天
^ "In Pictures – Middle Class, or Upper Class? ". India Together. Civil Society Information Exchange. August 2003 uwq
^ Mudur, Ganapati (June 2004). "Hospitals in India woo fo们reign patients". British Medical Journal 328: 1338. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7452.1338.何z花 PMID 15178611. B4
^ Languages by number of speakers according to 1991 census. Central Institute of Indian Languages. Retrieved on August 2, 2007. h不x
^ Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), Fifty Years of Language P北美枫B是lanning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India, Language in India, Volugme 4,1们6 Number 11. 生要ISSN 1930-2940. 日 d山
^ Matthew, K.M. (2006). Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala 北美枫山以Manorama, pg 524. ISBN 81-890花04-07-7. C月花o
^ Census of India 2001, Data on Religion. Census of India. Retrieved on November 22, 2007. wC
^ Tribes: Introduction. National Informatics Centre. Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved on April 12, 2007. 的
^ Ker说5了ala's literacy rate. d时 kerala.gov.in. Government of Kerala. 国Retrieeved on 2007-12-13. 北美枫为为u
^ Census Statistics of Bihar: Literacy Rates Literacy rate of Bihar. Government of Bihar. Retrieved on 2007-12-13. 的
^ World年8如 Gazetteer online n 日小
^ Taj Mahal (English). World Heritage List. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved on September 28, 2007. “The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value.” 北美枫 d无
^ Das, N.K. (July 2006). "Cultural Diversity, Religious S他yncretism and People of India: An Anthropological Interpretm中Dation". Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology 3 是(2nd). ISSN 1819-8465. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. “The pan-Indian, civilizational dimension of cultural pluralism and 我0tsyncretism encompasses ethnic diversity an全2了d admixture, linguistic heterog上eneity as well as fusion, and variations as well as synthesis in customs, behavioural patterns, beliefs and rituals.” 3h9
^ Baidyanath, Saraswati (2006). "Cultural Pluralism, National Identity and Development", Interface of Cultural Identity Development, 1stEdition, xxi+290pp. ISBN 81-246-0054-6. Retrieved on 2007-06-08. x
^ Bhattacharyya, Harihar; UNESCO (December 2003). "Multiculturalism in Contemporary India". IJMS 5 (2): 148–161. ISSN 1817-4574.. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. 春f
^ 1. "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" From: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2007. 2. Sangeet Natak Academi (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). 2007. Dance Programmes. 3. Kothari, Sunil. 2007. Sattriya dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India. Royal Holloway College, University of London. yBr
^ Lal 1998 一
^ (Karanth 1997, p. 26). Quote: "The Yakṣagāna folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26)
^ Country profile: India. BBC. 何全
^ Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004 r
^ Rajadhyaksha & Willemen (edito34山rs) 1999 个0y
^ MacDonell 2004, p. 1-40 我我来
^ Johnson 1998, Ma这cDonell 2004, p. 1-40, and Kalidasa & Johnson (editor) 2001 说u
^ Zvelebil 1992, p. 12 i
^ Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in Kiple & Kriemhild 2000, p. 1140-1151 fz
^ Achaya 1994, Achaya 1997 uc
^ 18 Popular India Festivals. Retrieved on 2007-12-23. u人人x
^ Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, pty花. 1-5我4是
|
