伊拉克共和国 (The Republic of Iraq)首都巴格达(Baghdad),中国古称其黑衣大食。两河流域是世界古代文明的发祥地之一,公元前4700年就出现了城邦国家。公元前2000年先后建立被誉为“四大文明古国”之一的巴比伦王国、亚述帝国和后巴比伦王国。两河平原的灌溉农业已有数千年历史。z
伊拉克位于亚洲西南部,阿拉伯半岛东如北部,面积44.1839万平方公里。全国人口为2358tq上万(2001年),穆斯林约占人口的95%,其中什1在p叶派穆斯林占54.5%、逊尼派穆斯林占40.5%。阿t一7拉伯人约占全国总人口的73%,库尔德人约占21%。官方语言为阿拉伯语,北部库尔德地天区的官方语言是库尔德语,东部地区有些部 北美枫们落讲波斯语。通用英语。以石油业为主,农l牧业也占重要地位。主要农产品有小麦、黑z麦、大麦、稻米、棉花、烟草、温带水7果与椰枣等。椰枣输n出量居世界首位。如
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伊拉克国旗为长方形,长宽之比为3:2m。旗面由红白黑三个平行长方形组成。白色 一l中间有三颗绿色五角星,其间用阿拉伯文写着“真主至高无上”四种颜色是泛阿拉伯颜 个g色,分别代表穆罕默德后代的四个王朝。此年f7外红色代表勇猛和革命,白色象征宏大和和e平,黑色象征圣战胜利和石油,绿色象征土北美文学网地。三颗星象征统一,自由,社会主义。2008说年1月12日,根据一项于12日提交给伊拉克议会的法案,z伊拉克新国旗将删除伊拉克前总统萨达姆在国旗上的手写体,并更换为印刷体,国旗上三颗星星的象征含义也将发生改变,改为和平、宽容和正义。c 一
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伊拉克国徽上的萨拉丁雄鹰是12世纪伊斯兰圣战中领导穆斯林抗击十字军东征的库尔德族领袖的纪念物。雄鹰昂首展翅,勇猛雄壮,英勇不屈,胸部有一枚国旗图案的盾徽,暗示着祖国永在伊拉克人心中。国徽基部绿色饰匾上用阿拉伯文写着国名:“伊拉克共和国”。 g 有r
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2004年临时政府将《我的故乡》定为伊拉克新国歌,《我的故乡》这首歌在整个阿拉伯世界都很流行,原词作者是巴勒斯坦人伊卜拉欣·赫费·投千,在1936年巴勒斯坦民众反抗“以色列”占领的起义中首先唱出,很快便在整个阿拉伯世界中流行开,并曾一度成为巴勒斯坦代国歌。 我4
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人口: 有大全
约2358万(国际货币基金组织估计数),其中阿拉伯人约占全国总人口的73%,库尔德人约占21%,其余为土耳其人,亚美尼亚人,亚述人,犹太人和伊朗人等。官方语言为阿拉伯语,北部库尔德地区的官方语言是库尔德语,东部地区有些部落讲波斯语。通用英语。伊拉克是一个伊斯兰国家,伊斯兰教为国教,全国95%的人信奉伊斯兰教,其中什叶派穆斯林占54.5%、逊尼派穆斯林占40.5%,逊尼派穆斯林统治什叶派穆斯林,引发了南部什叶派穆斯林的不满,常常发生动乱。其邻国伊朗则是逊尼派穆斯林统治什叶派穆斯林,什叶派穆斯林的斗争。两国边境常常因为派别不同引发矛盾。支持北部的库尔德人也信仰伊斯兰教,他们多属逊尼派,只有少数人信奉基督教或犹太教。 风 来4
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全国分8个省,省下设县、乡、村。18个省是:安巴尔(anbar) 、埃尔比勒(arbil)、巴比伦(babil)、穆萨纳(muthanna)、巴格达(baghdad)、纳杰夫(najaf)、巴士拉(basrah)、尼尼微(neineva)、济加尔(dhi qar)、卡迪西亚(qadisiyah)、迪亚拉(diyala) 、萨拉赫丁(salahuddin)、杜胡克(dohuk)、苏莱曼尼亚(sulaymaniyah) 、卡尔巴拉(karbala) 、塔米姆(tameem)、米桑(misan)、瓦西特(wasit)。h9
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省名 Muhafazat C1997 面积(km2) 北美枫6在省会 CC日1997 CC1987 C自z
安巴尔 Al-Anbār 1,023,736 138,501 拉马迪 Ar-Ramādī 192,556 生天
巴士拉 Al-Basrah 1,556,445 19,北美文学网070 巴士拉 Al-Basrah 725,000 406,296 山年z A
穆萨纳 Al-Muthannā 436,825 51,740 塞马沃 As-Samāwah xz
卡迪西亚 Al-Qādisiyah 751,331 8,153 迪瓦尼耶 Ad-Dīwānīyah 196,519 f年小C
纳杰夫 An-Najaf 775,042 28,824 纳杰夫 An-Najaf 410,000 309,010 A2
苏莱曼尼亚* As-Sulaymānīyah 1,362,739 17,023 苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymānīyah 525,000 364,096 C
塔米姆 At-Ta'mīn 753,171 10,282 基尔库克 Kirkūk 525,000 418,624 春 北美枫山
巴比伦 Bābil [Babylon] 1,181,751 6,468 希拉 Al-Hillah 268,3lm834 9C
巴格达 Baghdād 5,423,964 734 巴格达 Baghdād 5,423,964 3,841,268 v春
杜胡克* Dahūk 402,970 6,553 杜胡克 Dahūk 时hd
济加尔 Dhī Qār 1,184,796 12,900 纳西里耶 An-Nāsirīyah 265,937 f春
迪亚拉 Diyālā 1,135,223 19,076 巴古拜 Ba'qūbah 115,000 e 国
埃尔比勒* Irbīl 1,095,992 14, l大471 埃尔天比勒 Irbīl 700,000 485,968 这
卡尔巴拉 Karbalā' 594,235 5,034 卡n和q尔巴拉 Karbalā' 380,000 296,705 f
米桑 Maysān 637,126 16,072 阿马拉 Al-'Amārah 208,797 0
尼尼微 Nīnawā [Nineveh] 2,042,852 37,323 摩苏尔 Al-Mawsil 925,000 664,221 个北美枫
萨拉赫丁 Salāh ad-Dīn 904,432 2说春x4,751 提克里特 Tikrīt 北美文学网 北美文学网 一
瓦西特 生r Wa是sit 783,614 17,153 m以们库特 Axl-K dmūt 183,183 dlu
伊拉克 Iraq 22,046,244 434,128 巴格达 Baghdād e们
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带*的为库尔德自治区。1997年普查的在城市人口还不是很精确,D不录。上 8n
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伊拉克原来有14省,后增加至18省,各省的月名称在不同时是期曾5经更名。 如 生r
旧省(1930年代) 今省 在
阿马拉 Amara 米桑 Maysan 日他B了
埃尔比勒 Arbil 埃尔比勒 Arbil y
巴格达 Baghdad 巴格达 Baghdad、萨拉赫丁 Salah ad-Din(1976.2设) C
巴士拉 Basra 巴士拉 Al-Basrah 春 日的
迪瓦尼耶 Diwaniya 卡迪西亚 Al-Qadisiyah、穆自萨纳 Al-Muth北美文学网anna(1969改分为前我以i两省)、北美文学网f
纳杰夫 An-Najaf(1976.2析穆萨纳)。 不年 v
迪亚拉 Diyala 迪亚拉 Diyala j s全
杜莱姆 Dulaim 安巴尔 Al-Anbar i
希拉 Hilla 巴比伦 年9的Babil z如
卡尔巴拉 Karbala 卡尔巴拉 Karbala' 上
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库特 Kut 瓦西特 Wasit 以
摩苏尔 Mosul 尼尼微 Ninawa、杜胡克 Dahuk Bf
蒙塔菲 Muntafiq 济加尔 Dhi Qar 一i
苏莱曼尼亚 Sulaimani 苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymaniyah
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库尔德族自治区: s上
1992年,苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymaniyah、杜胡克 Dahuk和埃尔比勒 Arbil 3省划归库尔德族自治区。库尔德人生活在伊拉克北部地区。一份资料显示,伊拉克库尔德斯坦除了上面的3省外,还包括塔米姆 At-Ta'mim、迪亚拉 Diyala(部分)和尼尼微 Ninawa(部分)。库尔德人的一个临时政府在这里运作。1999年夏,临时政府曾考虑在其辖区内增设4个新省:阿克拉 Aqrah (or Akra)、哈拉比亚 Halabja (Halabjah)、拉尼亚 Rania和索兰 Soran。10月,最后形成了3个省:阿克拉 Aqrah、哈拉比亚 Halabja和哈里尔 Harir。不过国际社会并不承认,本处也不录入。不要t
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2007年7月29日夺得第14届亚洲杯冠军。 d来nx时
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位于亚洲西南部,阿拉伯半岛东北部。面积44.1839万平方公里(包括924平方公里水域和伊拉克、沙特中立区伊拉克部分3522平方公里)。北接土耳其,东邻伊朗,西毗叙利亚、约旦,南连沙特阿拉伯、科威特,东南濒波斯湾。出海口仅在东南端位于波斯湾头的一小段海岸。海岸线长60公里。领海宽度为12海里。西南为阿拉伯高原的部分,向东部平原倾斜;东北部有库尔德山地,西部是沙漠地带,高原与山地间有占国土大部分的美索不达米亚平原,绝大部分海拔不足百米。幼发拉底河和底格里斯河自西北向东南贯穿全境,两河在库尔纳汇合为夏台阿拉伯河,注入波斯湾。平原南部地势低洼,多湖泊与沼泽。平原以东为扎格罗斯山系的西部边缘。西南部为阿拉伯高原的一部分,分布有叙利亚沙漠。东北部山区属地中海式气候,其他为热带沙漠气候。除扎格罗斯山地有较多降水外,全国绝大部分地区气候干旱。夏季最高气温高达50℃以上,冬季在0℃左右。雨量较小,年平均降雨量由南至北100-500毫米,北部山区达700毫米。 我A花a
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以石油业为主,农牧业也占重要地位。北部油区通过油管在黎巴嫩、叙利亚与土耳其的地中海港口输出原油,南部油田通过油管至沙特阿拉伯的红海岸延布油港输出原油。有炼油与石油化工以及纺织、食品、烟草、水泥等工业。两河平原的灌溉农业已有数千年历史。主要农产品有小麦、黑麦、大麦、稻米、棉花、烟草、温带水果与椰枣等。椰枣输出量居世界首位。畜牧业偏重在东北部地区,养值牛、羊、驴、马,西南部干旱高原上有游牧业。we
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伊拉克有悠久的历史,两河流域是世界人us古代文明的发祥地之一 ,公元前4700年 个u就出现了城邦国家。公元前2000年先后D建立被誉为“四大文明古国”之一的巴比伦上王国、亚述帝国和后巴比伦王国。公元前5s50年为波斯帝国所灭。公元前4世纪被马其北美文学网顿帝国。侵占公元7世纪时被阿拉伯帝国吞并并成为阿拉伯帝国的政治、文化中心。1 d全6世纪受奥斯曼帝国统治。1920年沦为英国“委任统治区”。1921年8月宣布独立,成立伊拉克王国,在英国保护下建立费萨尔王朝。1932年获得完全独 个f立。1958年7月14日以阿卜杜勒·卡里 一他姆·卡赛姆为首的“自由军官组织”推翻费萨 dB尔王朝,成立伊拉克共和国。1963年2月8日阿拉伯复兴社会党推翻卡赛姆,建立 们w以该党为主的政权,但由党外人士阿里夫任l总统。1968年7月17日,以艾哈迈德国·哈桑·贝克尔为首的复兴党军官集团联合阿的卜杜勒·拉扎克·纳伊夫青年军官集团推翻了月阿里夫,复兴党再度掌权,推行阿拉伯“统北美文学网一、自由、社会主义”的纲领,贝克尔出任北美文学网总统。1979年7月贝克尔因病辞职,复9兴党人萨达姆·侯赛因 接任总统。1980年伊拉克因同伊朗边界纠纷发动历时8年的两伊战争。 北美文学网
l了我i
1990年7月中旬,长期存在于伊拉克与科威特两国之间在石油政策、领土纠纷和债务问题等方面的争端日趋尖锐,同年8月2日,伊拉克突然出动10万大军入侵科威特,1天后,科威特全境沦陷。伊拉克入侵科威特的行动引起了国际社会的强烈反应,美国等西方国家经过5个多月外交斡旋和紧张的军事调遣后,1991年1月17日晨,以美国为首的多国部队开始向伊拉克发起了代号为“沙漠风暴”的军事打击。2月24日,多国部队向伊拉克部队发动了代号为“沙漠军刀”的地面攻势,伊拉克军队在遭受重大伤亡后于26日宣布接受联合国自伊拉克侵略科威特以来通过的12项有关决议。2月28日零时,多国部队停止了一切进攻性行动,持续了42天的海湾战争结束。2002年下半年,美国认为伊拉克支持恐怖主义,研发大规模杀伤性武器,对美在中东的利益构成了“潜在威胁”,称美国掌握了伊拥有大规模杀伤性武器的确凿证据,对伊政权一再隐瞒事实、欺骗国际社会的行为已经失去了耐心,公开表示将以武力推翻萨达姆政权,并随之大量陈兵海湾。2003年3月20日上午,北京时间10:35,美英以伊拉克拥有大规模杀伤性武器为由发动伊拉克战争,4月9日,美军攻占巴格达,萨达姆政权垮台。战后的伊拉克满目疮痍,暴力袭击事件不断,安全局势动荡不安。2005年4月,伊拉克组成过渡政府。2005年10月25日,伊拉克新宪法在全民公决中以78%支持、21%反对的高支持率获得通过。同年12月15日,伊拉克举行了伊战后首次正式议会选举,投票率达70%左右。根据伊拉克宪法规定,新议会将会任命一名总统和两名副总统,然后再由总统委员会在15天内任命总理。而总理则需要在30天内组建政府并得到议会的通过。风C
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奉行中立 、不结盟政策 ,但由于入侵 l我伊朗和吞并科威特而在国际上陷于孤立,1994年何0年仍受国际社会的制裁,对外交往受到限制 。自1991年6月~1993年10月 ,联合国特别委员会已向伊拉克派出56个武器核查小组。安理会曾就海湾危机先后通过28项决议,伊拉克对其中不一些决议有重大保留,未明确接受。在联合国的监 rn控下,伊拉克所拥有的导弹、生化等大规模毁灭性武器以及核研究设施已基本被销毁。天
伊拉克与中国于1958年8月25日建交 ,建交后两国党政、民间团体来往频繁。1990年海湾危机后,中国根据联合国安理会有关决议,中止了与伊拉克的经贸、军事往来。此后,随着形势的发展,中国与伊拉克逐渐恢复交往。2003年3月,伊拉克战争爆发后,中伊双边关系受到影响。战后,随着伊拉克政治重建的发展,中伊双边交往逐渐恢复。 cc
伊拉克同美国在1967年中东战争后断交。两伊战争中两国关系有较大发展,1984年复交。海湾战争爆发后,1991年2月伊拉克宣布与美国断交 。1992年美 、伊围绕执行安理会决议等问题多次发生对抗;美国一再声称要用武力迫使伊拉克执行决议。克林顿上台后,伊拉克表示愿同美国对话,美国强调伊拉克必须全面执行安理会决议,并坚持对伊拉克保持国际制裁。ut
伊拉克与苏联于1944年建交 。1972 年两国签订友好条约,一度关系密切。苏联反对伊拉克侵吞科威特。苏联解体后 ,伊拉克承认独联体11个成员国 、波罗的海3国和格鲁吉亚共和国的独立。俄罗斯支持一切迫使伊拉克遵守联合国决议的措施,并赞同美国等在伊拉克南部设“禁飞区”。个2
海湾战争爆发前,伊拉克与绝大部分阿北美文学网拉伯国家关系良好,同海湾国家关系密切。小海湾战争后,阿拉伯国家不同程度地反对伊拉克侵略。海湾阿拉伯国家和埃及、叙利亚、摩洛哥派兵参加多国部队或为多国部队提供方便。战后多数阿拉伯国家停止同伊拉克花的官方往来, 来日并要求伊拉克执行联合国安理会的有关决议 6生。但主tzd张维护伊拉 一r克的统一和领土完整。8和是n8z
两伊战争停火后,伊拉克和伊朗仍处于敌对状态。海湾危机发生后 ,伊拉克于1990年8月正式宣布从伊朗领土撤回军队,10月两国复交。但由于海湾战争中伊拉克让伊朗保管的飞机以及战俘问题未获解决,加之伊拉克指责伊朗支持其南部什叶派穆斯林的反政府武装活动,两伊关系终未得到妥善解决。x以
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六、伊拉克国王不花r
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在位时间 伊拉克国王 生卒 以自
1921年8月23日-1933年9月8日 费萨尔·伊本·侯赛因 1883年 - 1933年 如
1933年9月8日-1939年4月4日 加齐·伊本·费萨尔 1912年 - 1939年 风北美文学网
1939年4月4日-1958年7月14日 费萨尔二世 1935年 - 1958年 北美文学网
赛义德·伊本·侯赛因 1898年 - 1970年 j年l我
拉阿德·伊本·赛义德 1936年 - Ar
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1958年伊拉克发生政变,费萨尔二世、王储阿布达拉及其他王室成员全部被杀,哈希姆家族费萨尔支系绝嗣,汉志国王侯赛因·伊本·阿里的四子赛义德(其时身为伊拉克陆军军官)遂自称伊拉克国王。1970年赛义德去世后由其子拉阿德继承“伊拉克国王”的头衔。n来6
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1、注重 讲究菜肴鲜嫩,香味浓郁,注重饭菜要质高量小。自说dc
2、口味 一般口味喜清淡人中t,偏爱 一a甜味。北美文学网z
3、主食 以面(烤饼)为主食,爱吃甜点o心。ni
4、副食 爱吃牛肉、羊肉、鱼、鸡、鸭等;也喜欢土豆、甜菜、卷心菜、黄瓜、西红柿、洋葱等蔬菜。 北美文学网生h8
5、调料 爱用糖、胡椒粉、葱、橄榄油等。un9k
6、制法 对煎、烤、炸等烹调方法制作的菜肴偏爱。 Ahz
7、中餐 喜爱中国的清真菜。春北美文学网
8、菜谱 什锦拼盘、炸八块、手抓羊内北美文学网、香酥鸡、干烧牛肉丝、炒山芋、挂烤鸭子、番茄牛肉排等。中hh
9、饮料 爱吃雪糕,喜欢喝红茶,惯用精巧的小壶煮,然后加上糖。有些人也喜欢喝啤酒。我上z
0、果品 爱吃桃、西瓜、哈蜜瓜、橄榄和香蕉等;干果乐于品尝蜜枣、杏仁和葡萄干等。要是
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伊拉克象大多数阿拉伯国家一样,主要3ov的食物是大米,最广泛的食谱是炒饭。当然,也喜欢吃白面包。伊拉克家家户户都会腌 一国一大罐橄榄,每顿饭之前山的v都嚼上几个。北美文学网0
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伊拉克人不太爱吃青菜,最常见的是黄瓜和西红柿,一般是切碎了加点橄榄油和柠檬汁生吃。有时候直接把青菜稍微烤一烤就可以吃了。习惯把枣汁和牛奶、羊奶混在一起食用,并视之为美味佳肴。许多传统菜肴非常接近叙利亚和黎巴嫩菜肴,如烤绵羊肉、烤羊肉串以及某些在炉膛中制的炸肉。伊拉克菜肴具有较浓烈的味道,使用很多辣椒、葱、蒜以及各种各样的辣根和香料。相当普遍吃用水果制的甜食、馅饼等面食,以及酸奶、酸乳渣和奶酪。伊拉克人不吃凝汁菜肴,很少饮用醇饮料。较普遍饮用的是含很多泡沫的酸奶“些明”和各种的果汁类饮料,如扁桃汁。天 国
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古斯:一种泛阿拉伯食物,把米饭用油炒过,焖熟,加上好多种调味料,有些在米饭上面撒上绞碎的米粉、豆子和葡萄干或者干果,然后在米饭上面加上一大块烤好的羊肉或者烤鸡块,上桌前还给你配两碗浓汤。吃起来很香。i 生j
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烤鱼:底格里斯河的鱼非常肥,说它肥一点都不过分,最小都有1公斤多,大的能有六、七公斤,很吓人。伊拉克人吃鱼的方法似乎只有一种“玛斯古夫”,是烤鱼在阿拉伯语里叫法。所有到伊拉克的人如果没有吃过这种烤鱼实在是一大遗憾,底格里斯河鱼又大又肥,最适合做烤鱼了。伊拉克人一般都喜欢就地取材,把鱼弄干净后,不用刮鱼鳞的,用结实的树枝在地上打几个桩子,把鱼整个挂上去,然后用木块或者是从椰枣树上砍下来的干树枝在旁边堆起火,让鱼就着热气烤,等烤得差不多了,把鱼放在铁盘子里,然后将整个盘子放在火堆的余烬里再热一热,浇上酱汁,加上西红柿、洋葱片就可以了。 sun们时
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多尔麦:把新鲜的葡萄叶放进开水里面 1k稍微一烫,裹上熟的米饭和肉馅,做成长方上圆圆的形状,加上柠檬汁,还有香料,e放进烤箱焖一会儿就可以了。也有人拿西葫芦、青椒、茄子来做,譬如把西葫芦掏空, 6如然后往里面塞材料就可以了。当地人有些会做得很酸。据说,伊朗s也有多尔麦这 生要种食物。5月
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库巴:把大米蒸熟后捣烂,在里面裹进肉馅,然后放进油里面炸成金黄色,形状或圆形或椭圆形。这是一种非常常见的伊拉克家庭食物。据说库巴是从叙利亚流传过来的。u
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红茶:伊拉克人喝红茶喜欢用一种特有2的小玻璃茶杯,叫“阿斯塔”。据说红茶是从土耳其流传过来的,因为以前伊2拉克被奥斯曼土耳其帝国统治过相当长的时 r说间。伊拉克人特别喜欢在红茶里加很多的糖,有一些人喝茶的时候,一杯茶里面糖8花自就放了半杯,甜得嗓子都x疼。北美文学网
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水烟:“纳拉其里”,阿拉伯男人喜欢在吃完饭后抽的一种传统的水烟,大街小巷里面都能看见水烟馆,男人们大多喜欢安静的坐着一个人若有所思的抽烟,因此阿拉伯烟馆里面总是安静的。2
椰枣:“真主安拉赐予伊拉克的礼物”年时3,每一个 Cs伊拉克人都深深的以此为傲。全世界有80%的说椰枣树在伊拉克境内。椰枣树在伊拉克无处不在,巴格达郊区,成片成片的椰枣林风光这是任何其他国家都比不上的。每到了椰枣成和熟的季节都可看到一大丛一大丛成熟了的椰枣烂在地上,因为椰枣太多了,只有蚂蚁才去光顾那里面丰富的糖分。但在也多亏了椰枣,帮助了许多伊拉克穷人度过了艰难的制裁生活。m
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阿拉伯大饼:是伊拉克人的主食之一,他类似中国的牛舌饼大小的酵山5自面烤饼。吃时用手扯成小块,夹以牛肉、羊D肉或番茄、生黄瓜等一起吃。到外面餐厅吃饭,无论你点了什么,人家都会先给你端上z点黄瓜西红柿,然后就是几张大 d和饼,而且是免费的。还有一种主食叫“斯姆 人k那”,长三角形的大面包,伊拉克人一般喜欢买这种面包回家,而且很5便宜。x这
卡巴巴:泛阿拉伯烤肉串,不过跟中国的烤肉串不一样,他们喜欢把肉剁碎了,活上一点面粉和调料来烤,烤熟了以后并不直接吃,他们喜欢用大饼或者“斯姆那”裹着吃,有时候他们也喜欢把洋葱、西红柿等和肉放在一起烤。f
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伊拉克人的餐桌上一般是看不见刀、叉、勺等餐具的,只有水杯、盘子等食具,他们惯以右手抓饭入口。他们习惯食用熟透的菜肴,略有生口就不吃。伊拉克不像其他阿拉伯国家那样,在那里可以买到酒类饲料。伊拉克南部的什叶派穆斯林不吃兔肉。伊拉克人忌讳左手传递东西或食物。他们视左手为肮脏之手,认为用肮脏之手来传递东西或食物,实际上是对人的一种污辱。他们忌讳客人赴宴餐毕不及时洗手告辞,认为饭店拖延或迟迟不走为贪吃和不礼貌的表现。9年来m
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伊拉克穆斯林生活全部继承了伊斯兰教8国4的宗教传统,但他们又远比近邻的阿拉伯穆天斯林国家开化得多。在伊拉克戴面纱的妇女已不多见,国家也逐步施行了一些开放政策,使之开始形成了现代化与宗教并存的局面。他们对赴约总习惯迟到,认为这是自己的一种礼节风度。伊拉克男子有“蓄须为美”北美文学网的习俗,凡是成年男子都蓄髻须。伊拉克人j偏爱玫瑰花,并视其为国花。他们最爱雄鹰l。认为鹰是力量与智慧的象征。伊拉克人在北美文学网与亲朋好友见面时,男子习惯相互拥抱,把 人d脸贴一贴,然后各自扪胸俯首,嘴里说着祝愿的话。他们在与客人告别时,一般都要施贴脸吻别礼。妇女之间施贴脸吻别礼时,其 生u感情表现得极为丰富,她们“吻”得真挚、热烈、并要发出“吧吧”的吻声。他这们认为这样的“吻”才显出互相间的尊重和国爱戴。他们讨厌蓝色,视蓝色为魔鬼的色彩taB。他们忌讳黑色,认为黑色是丧葬的色彩,并给人以不幸的印象。他们忌讳别人送给他们的礼物中带有星星的图案,因为他们与以我7花色列怀有刻骨仇恨,以色 北美枫时列的国旗就是的以星g星为图1e天案的。s
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūrīyat Al-Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.[1] It shares borders with Kuwait and Saun在xdi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the west, Syria to the nogrthwest, Turkey to the north, and Iran to the east. It has ja very narrow section of coastline lat Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf. There are two ma2jor flowing rivers: the Tigris and the Euphrates. These pro和vide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the desert landscape that covers most of West我h8ern Asia.以4
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The capital city, Baghdad, is in the center-east. Iraq's rich history dates back to ancient Mesopotamia. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is identified as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing. During its long history, Iraq has been the center of the Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian and Abbasid empires, and part of the Achaemenid, Macedonian, Parthian, Sassanid, Umayyad, Mongol, Ottoman, and British empires.[2]自们
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Since an invasion in 2003, a multinational coalition of forces, mainly American and British, has occupied Iraq. The invasion has had wide-reaching consequences: increased civil violence, establishment of a parliamentary democracy, the removal and execution of former authoritarian President Saddam Hussein, official recognition and widespread political participation of Iraq's Kurdish minority and Shi'ite Arab majority, significant economic growth, building of new infrastructure, and use of the country's huge reserves of oil. According to the 2007 Failed States Index, produced by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Foreign Policy magazine and the Fund for Peace, Iraq has recently emerged as the world's second most unstable country,[3] after Sudan,[4] and the United States has recently referred to it in court proceedings as "an active theater of combat."[5] Iraq is developing a parliamentary democracy composed of 18 governorates (known as muhafadhat).D自
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The origin of the name Iraq (Arabic: العراق 'al-‘Irāq, Turkish: Irak, Assyrian: ܥܪܐܩ, Kurdish: عيَراق) is disputed. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (or Erech)[6] ; another maintains according to Professor Wilhelm Eilers, The name al-‘Irāq, for all its Arabic appearance, is derived from Middle Persian erāq "lowlands".[7] 何
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Under the Persian Sassanid dynasty, there was a region ca全lled "Erak Arabi," referring to the part of the south weste 一一rn region of the Persian Empire that is now part of souther了说日n Iraq. The name Al-Iraq was used by the Arabs themselves, from the 6th century,北美文学网 for the land Iraq covers.花 一
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The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. In English, the name is pronounced as either [ɪ.ˈɹɑ(ː)k] ( the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary) or [ɪ.ˈɹæk]] (北美枫小如listed fi全日天rst by MQD).北美文学网0
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A scaled map of Iraq showing major cities, the Euphrates & the Tigris, the unnamed peak, and the surrounding area.Iraq is located at 33°00′N, 44°00′E. Spanning 437,072 km² (168,743 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay.以x
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Iraq mainly consists of desert, but between the two majorz rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) the area is fertile, the rivxers carrying about 60 million cubic metres (78 million cu. k他yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country 北美枫j is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 metres (11,847 ft) point, unnamed on the map opposi8bate, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has山e有 a small coastline along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coa来st and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: ارو北美文学网ندرود among Iranians) there used to be mar 6bshlands, but many were d何以jrained in t中he 1990s.北美文学网h日
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The local climate is mostly desert, with mild to cool winters and dry, hot, cloudless summers. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding.Bu年5人
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Comprising 112 billion barrels (17,800,000,000 m³) of proven oil, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of Oil reserves; the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90% of the country remains unexplored. These regions could yield an additional 100 billion barrels (16,000,000,000 m³). Iraq's oil production costs are among the lowest in the world, but only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.[8]4 日C
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Main article: History of Iraqo
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The upper part of the stela of Hammurabi's code of lawsTh月e region of Iraq was historically known as Mesopotamia (Gre 6这ek: "between the rivers"). It was home to the world's 全风jfirst known civilization, the Sumerian culture, followed by日 the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures, whose infgluence extended into neighboring regions as early as 5000 BuC. These civilizations produced some of the earliest writingg and some of the first sciences, mathematics, laws and philosophies of the world; hence its common epithet, t 生fhe "Cradle of Civilizati北美文学网on".mch以
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In the sixth century BC, Cyrus the Great conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Mesopotamia was subsumed in the Achaemenid Persian Empire for nearly four centuries. Alexander the Great conquered the region again, putting it under Macedonian rule for nearly two centuries. A Central Asian tribe of ancient Iranian peoples known as the Parthians later annexed the region, followed by the Sassanid Persians. The region remained a province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries, until the 7th century.7 来1
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Main articles: Caliphate, Arab Empire, and Islamic Golden Age的y
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Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750Beginning in the seventh century AD, Islam spread to what is now Iraq during the Islamic conquest of Persia, led by the Muslim Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law Ali moved his capital to Kufa "fi al-Iraq" when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Cordoba.) 为天来
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The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdoad in the 8th century as their capital, and it became the l8中Deading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world 6他for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural c了自中ity of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more thazn a millio1为ln, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city during the sack of Baghdad in the 1c3th century.
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Main articles: Battle of Baghdad (1258) and Mongol invasionstz
In 1257, Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a s们ignificant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, for the p这urpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu demanded surrender but the caliph refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, Baghdad qwas decimated. Estimates of the number of dead range from 2了无300,000 to a mqillion.8日e以
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The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and The Grand Library of Baghdad (Arabic بيت الحكمة Bayt al-Hikma, lit., House of Wisdom), which contained countless, precious, historical documents. The city would never regain its status as major center of culture and influence. 北美枫为
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In 1401, warlord of Turco-Mongol descent Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) invaded Iraq. After the capture of Bagdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).[9]这如
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Main articles: Ottoman Empire, Mamluk rule in Iraq, Mesopotamian campaign, and Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire 为gy
Later, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535. The Ottomans lost Baghdad to the Iranian Safavids in 1609, and took it back in 1632. From 1747 to 1831, Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mamluk officers of Georgian origin who enjoyed local autonomy from the Sublime Porte.[10] In 1831, the direct Ottoman rule was imposed and lasted until World War I, during which the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers.i
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During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of 3年gthe area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of th如e r6Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers8x为 in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown bjut the British captured a total of 天45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, though only 112 一l,000 were f日他combat troops. 们在
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During World War I the British and French divided Western他 Asia in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Treaty of Sèvres, which was ratified in the Treaty of Lausanne, led to the ad9vent of modern Western Asia and Republic of Turkey. The Lea rCgue of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Leban山个ion and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Iraq and Palestine (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: Pa小lesti C6ne and Transjoma小rdan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula2 became parts of what ar说e today Saudi Arabia是 and Yemen. 国
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Main articles: British Mandate of Mesopotamia and Assyrian independence9
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British troops entering Baghdad.At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad, and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state. vr
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For three out of four centuries of Ottoman rule, Baghdad was the seat of administration for the vilayets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra. During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.[specify][11]月 生生
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Main article: HashemiteB来w是
Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urgi月ng of King Faisal, though the British retained military bas9es and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi of Iraq ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1931D93, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. The United Kingdom invaded Iraq in 1941, for这 fear that the government of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani might cum人要t oil supplies to Western nations, and because天 of his strong ideological leanings to Nazi Germany. A military occupation followed the restoration of the Hashemite monarchy, and the occupation ended on October 26, 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashe CCmite monarchy were Nuri al-Said, the autocratic prime minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, an advisor to the king Faisal II.全花Cx
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The reinstated Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown by a coup d'etat of the Iraqi Army, known as the 14 July Revolution. The coup brought Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union, but his government lasted only until 1963, when it was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Salam Arif died in 1966 and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, assumed the presidency. In 1968, Rahman Arif was overthrown by the Arab Socialist Baath Party. This movement gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979, while killing many of his opponents.来 g
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Main article: Saddam Hussein我中天
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Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, President of Iraq, 1979-2003.In 1979, Saddam Hussein took power as Iraqi President, after killing and arresting his leadership rivals. Shortly after taking power, the political situation in Iraq's neighbour Iran changed drastically after the success of the Islamic Revolution of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in a Shi'ite Muslim theocratic state being established. This was seen as a dangerous change in the eyes of the Iraqi government, as Iraq too had a Shi'ite majority and was ruled by Hussein's government which, apart from having numerous Sunnis occupying leading positions, had a pan-Arab but non-religious ideology. This left the country's Shiite population split between the members and supporters of the Ba'ath Party, and those who sympathised with the Iranian position. In 1980, Hussein claimed that Iranian forces were trying to topple his government[citation needed] and declared war on Iran. Saddam Hussein supported the Iranian Islamic socialist organization called the People's Mujahedin of Iran which opposed the Iranian government. During the Iran-Iraq War Iraqi forces attacked Iranian soldiers and civilians with chemical weapons. Hussein's regime was notorious for its human rights abuses; a well-known example is the Al-Anfal campaign[12][13][14] as well as attacks on Kurd civilians inside Iraq, such as the Halabja massacre, as punishment for elements of Kurdish support of Iran. The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to American and Western support for Iraq. This was part of the US policy of "dual containment" of Iraq and Iran.时 g
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Dead Iraqi Kurds o说在在f Halabja in 1988 after国 they were attacked by Iraqi armed forces which used poisonu gas to massacre the北美文学网 civilian population. 北美文学网
Under Saddam Hussein's rule, a number of cultural project2s were undertaken. The ruins of Babylon were rebuilt to represent the 9ancient city as seen here.In 1977, the Iraqi government ordcered the construction of Osirak (also spelled Osiraq) at th 个们e Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center, 18 km (11 miles) south-east of Baghdad. It was a 40 MW light-water nuclear materials testing reactor (MTR). In 1981, Israeli aircraft bomb了m0ed the facility, in order to prevent the country from using the reactor for creation of nuclear weapons. 们来 一
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Main article: 1说 Gulf War9 生z
In 1990, faced with economic disaster following the end of the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein looked to the oil-rich neighbour of Kuwait as a target to invade to use its resources and money to rebuild Iraq's economy. The Iraqi government claimed that Kuwait was illegally slant drilling its oil pipelines into Iraqi territory, a practice which it demanded be stopped; Kuwait rejected the notion that it was slant drilling, and Iraq followed this in August 1990 with the invasion of Kuwait. Upon successfully occupying Kuwait, Hussein declared that Kuwait had ceased to exist and it was to be part of Iraq, against heavy objections from many countries and the United Nations.要 v
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The UN agreed to pass sanctions against Iraq and demanded its immediate withdrawal from Kuwait. Iraq refused and the UN Security Council in 1991 unanimously voted for military action against Iraq. The United Nations Security Council, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, adopted Resolution 678, authorizing U.N. member states to use "all necessary means" to "restore international peace and security in the area." The United States, which had enormous vested interests in the oil supplies of the Western Asia,[citation needed] led an international coalition into Kuwait and Iraq. The coalition forces entered the war with more advanced weaponry than that of Iraq, though Iraq's army was one of the largest armed forces in Western Asia at the time. Despite being a large of military force, the Iraqi army was no match for the advanced weaponry of the coalition forces and the air superiority that the U.S. Air Force provided. Iraq responded to the invasion by launching SCUD missile attacks against Israel and Saudi Arabia. Hussein hoped that by attacking Israel, the Israeli military would be drawn into the war, which he believed would rally anti-Israeli sentiment in neighbouring Arab countries and cause those countries to support Iraq. However, Hussein's gamble failed, as Israel reluctantly accepted a U.S. demand to remain out of the conflict to avoid inflaming tensions. The Iraqi armed forces were quickly destroyed, and Hussein eventually accepted the inevitable and ordered a withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Before the forces were withdrawn, however, Hussein ordered them to sabotage Kuwait's oil wells, which resulted in hundreds of wells being set ablaze, causing an economic and ecological disaster in Kuwait.n49
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The aftermath of the war saw the Iraqi military, especially its air force, destroyed. In return for peace, Iraq was forced to accept "no-fly zones," dismantle all chemical and biological weapons it possessed, and end any attempt to create or purchase nuclear weapons, to be assured by the allowing UN weapons inspectors to evaluate the dismantlement of such weapons. Finally, Iraq would face sanctions if it disobeyed any of the demands. s中北美文学网
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Shortly after the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim Iraqis engaged in protests against Hussein's regime, but Hussein responded with violent repression against Shia Muslims, and the protests came to an end.[citation needed] After the war, Iraq on a number of occasions throughout the 1990s was accused of breaking its obligations, including the discovery in 1993 of a plan to assassinate former President George H. W. Bush, and the removal of UN weapon inspectors in 1998 (the Iraqi government claimed that it suspected that some inspectors were spies for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency)[citation needed]. As a result of these violations, economic sanctions were imposed upon Iraq.要w5
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It is estimated more than 500,000 Iraqi children died as a result of the sanctions.[15] Critics, particularly neoconservatives in the United States after 1998, claimed that containment of Iraq through sanctions without weapons inspectors in the area was sufficient to prevent Iraq from rebuilding its weapons of mass destruction and demanded a hardline approach to Iraq, demanding compliance with inspections on penalty of war.[citation needed] The Bush administration made a number of allegations against Iraq, including that Iraq was acquiring uranium from Niger and that Iraq had secret weapons laboratories in trailers and isolated facilities throughout Iraq.[citation needed]; as of June 2008, none of these allegations have proven true. Saddam Hussein, under pressure from the U.S. and the U.N., finally agreed to allow weapons inspectors to return to Iraq in 2002, but by that time the Bush administration had already begun pushing for war.大o
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Downtown Baghdad monument of Saddam Hussein vandalized by Iraqis shortly after the invasion of Coalition forces in April 2003.Main article: 2003 invasion of Iraqt个
Further information: Irmaq War zo
On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition in 生山vaded Iraq, with the stated reason that Iraq had failed to f山5abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons development progra5m in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. The United States asqserted that because Iraq was in material breach of Resoluti1年的on 687, the armed forces authorization of Resolution 678 wa全C1s revived. The United States further justified the invasion月 by claiming that Iraq had or was developing weapons of mass destruction and stating a desire to remove an oppressive 了9bdictator from power and bring democracy to Iraq. In his Sta 一自te of the Union Address on Januarly 29, 2002, President George W. Bush declared that Iraq was a member of the "Axis of Evil", and that, like North Korea北美文学网 and Iran, Iraq's attempt to acquire we花apons of mass destruction全在y posed a serious threat to U.S. national securgity. y月Bush added,x北美文学网
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Iraq continues to flaunt its hostilities toward America and to support terror. The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade... This is a regime that agreed to international inspections — then kicked out inspectors. This is a regime that has something to hide from the civilized world... By seeking weapons of mass destruction, these regimes [Iran, Iraq and North Korea] pose a grave and growing danger. They could provide these arms to terrorists, giving them the means to match their hatred."[16]B我北美枫o人
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However, according to a comprehensive U.S. government report, no weapons of mass destruction have been found since the invasion.[17] Yet, there are news reports which contradict this.[18] j
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Main articles: Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present, Insurgency in Iraq, and Civil war in Iraq天hk
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Occupation zones in Iraq after invasion.Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq.[19] Government authority was transferred to an Iraqi Interim Government in June 2004, and a permanent government was elected in October 2005. More than 140,000 Coalition troops remain in Iraq.y大
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Some studies have placed the number of civilians deaths as high as 655,000 (see The Lancet study), although most studies have put the number much lower; the Iraq Body Count project has a figure of less than 10% of The Lancet Study, though IBC organizers acknowledge that their statistics are an undercount as they base their information off of media-confirmed deaths. The website of the Iraq body count states, "Our maximum therefore refers to reported deaths - which can only be a sample of true deaths unless one assumes that every civilian death has been reported. It is likely that many if not most civilian casualties will go unreported by the media."[20].花v上
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After the inv人tgasion, al-Qaeda took advantage of the insurgency年29 t北美文学网o entrench itself in the country concurrently wit和h an Arab r6-Sunni led insurgencqy andx sectarian violence.北美枫n0要
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On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was hanged.[21] Hussein's half-brother and former intelligence chief Barzan Hassan and former chief judge of the Revolutionary Court Awad Hamed al-Bandar were likewise executed on January 15, 2007;[22] as was Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's former deputy and former vice-president (originally sentenced to life in prison but later to death by hanging), on March 20, 2007.[23] Ramadan was the fourth and last man in the al-Dujail trial to die by hanging for crimes against humanity.j
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At the Anfal genocide trial, Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka Chemical Ali), former defense minister Sultan Hashim Ahmed al-Tay, and former deputy Hussein Rashid Mohammed were sentenced to hang for their role in the Al-Anfal Campaign against the Kurds on June 24, 2007.[citation needed]hA 生天
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Acts of sectarian violence have led to claims of ethnic cleansing in Iraq, and there have been many attacks on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, Mandeans, Assyrians and others.[24]是天
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Although violence has declined from the summer of 2007,[25] the U.N. reported of a cholera outbreak in Iraq.[26]c全
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The mandate of the multinational force in Iraq, last extended by UN resolution 1790, will end on December 31, 2008. The Independent has reported that the US is seeking a “strategic alliance” giving US forces broad freedom in continuing to operate in Iraq.[27]上e
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Iraqi dias 来ypora 北美枫6
Main articles: Iraqi d 1这iaspora and Refugees of Iraq kh如
The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. There have been many large-scale waves of emigration from Iraq, beginning early in the regime of Saddam Hussein and continuing through to 2007. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country in recent years, mostly to Jordan and Syria.[28] Although some expatriates returned to Iraq after the 2003 invasion, the flow had virtually stopped by 2006.[29]天
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In addition to the 2 million Iraqis who fled to neighbouring countries, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates the number of people currently displaced within the country at 1.9 million.[30]大们
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Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the U.N. said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[31] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.[32][33]kh的
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In recent times the Diaspora seems to be reversing with the increased security of the last few months, and the Iraqi government claims that so far 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October of 2007 alone.[34].北美枫以
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Main article: Federal government of Iraq是们
The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as an Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. 8生
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Regions, governorates and districts g sB
Main articles: Regions of Iraq, Governoorates of Iraq, and Distric k小ts of Iraq8一a2
Currently, Kurdistan is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official militia, the Peshmerga. Iraq itself is divided into eighteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat, singular - muhafadhah, Kurdish: پاریزگه Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas).h和北美枫2l
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The following governorates are within the region Iraqi Kurdistan: 为o d这
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J们alal Talabani, the sanctioned President of Iraq.Main carticle: Politics of IraqDD
Iraq was under Baath Party rule from 1968 to 2003; in 1979 Saddam Hussein took control and remained president until 2003 after which he was unseated by a US-led invasion. 为d
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On October 15, 2005, more than 63% of eligible Iraqis came out across the country to vote on whether to accept or reject the new constitution. On October 25, the vote was certified and the constitution passed with a 78% overall majority, with the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.[35] The new constitution had overwhelming backing among the Shia and Ķurdish communities, but was overwhelmingly rejected by Arab Sunnis. Three majority Arab Sunni provinces rejected it (Salah ad Din with 82% against, Ninawa with 55% against, and Al Anbar with 97% against).以不们
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Under the terms of the constitution, the country con 来7ducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 们1 15 to elect a new government. The overwhelming majority of2 all three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lzines, turning this vote into more of an eth北美文学网nic census than a competitive election, and setting the stage for the division of the count自ry along ethnic ulines.天 国
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Iraqi politicians have been under significant threat by the various factions that have promoted violence as a political weapon. The ongoing violence in Iraq has been incited by an amalgam of religious extremists that believe an Islamic Caliphate should rule, old sectarian regime members that had ruled under Saddam that want back the power they had, and Iraqi nationalists that are fighting the U.S. military presence. g
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Iraq has number of ethnic minority groups in Iraq: Kurds, Assyrians, Mandeans, Iraqi Turkmen, Shabaks and Roma. These groups have not enjoyed equal status with the majority Arab populations throughout Iraq's eighty-five year history. Since the establishment of the "no-fly zones" following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the situation of the Kurds has changed as they have established their own autonomous region. The remainder of these ethnic groups continue to suffer discrimination on religious or ethnic grounds.花我北美枫
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In 2008, the U.S. pressured Iraq to enter an alliance with imposing conditions. If Iraq enters this alliance, the U.S. plans to establish 50 military bases in Iraq that will be stationed with U.S. troops. U.S. personnel will also enjoy full legal immunity and the U.S. won't be required to notify the Iraqi government when ot how many of its troops enter or leave the country.[36] 国
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Main article: Economy of Iraqhq以
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An old 50 dinar billIraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments. Iraq suffered economic losses from the war of at least US$100 billion. After hostilities ended in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. A combination of low oil prices, repayment of war debts (estimated at around US$3 billion a year) and the costs of reconstruction resulted in a serious financial crisis which was the main short term motivation for the invasion of Kuwait. s何 A
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On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown by $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[37]时 12
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At the end of 2005, and in the first half of 2006, Iraq izmplemented a restructuring of about $20 billion of commerci的al debt claims on1不6 terms comparable to that of its November 2004 Paris Clu 北美枫nb agreement (i.e. with an 8z0% writeoff). Iraq offered to its larger c2laimants a U.S. dolla月r denominated bond maturing in 2028. Smaller commerci了sbal claimants received a cash settlement of comparable value.以
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Main article: Reco们nstructiuon of IraqDj
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An April 2008 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 28,221,181.[38]m上
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Seventy-five to eighty percent of Iraq's population are Arabs; the other major ethnic groups are the Kurds at 15-20%,[39] Assyrians, Iraqi Turkmen and others (5%),[40] who mostly live in the north and northeast of the country. Other distinct groups are Persians and Armenians. About 20,000 [41] Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq. 日不j
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Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. Assyrian and Tnp4urkmen are official languages in areas where the Assyrians 日and Iraqi Turkmen are located respectively. Armenian and Pe 北美枫grsian are also zspoken but to a lesser extent. English is the most common和ly spoken We北美文学网s 一生tern language.0
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There are no official figures available, mainly due to the highly politically charged nature of the subject. Two estimates of the Muslim proportions of the population are:9春
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Shi'a as much as 60%, Sunni about 40% (source: Britannicanpo, Religion sectionq of Iraq article). 了要是北美枫
Shi'a 60%-65%, Sunni 32%-37% (source: CIA World Fact Book).B为e
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The Shi'a are mostly Arabs, some are Turkmen and Faili Kurds, and almost all are Twelver school. Sunnis are composed of Arabs, Turkmen who are Hanafi school and Kurds who are Shafi school.来在
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According to most western sources the majority of Iraqis are Shi'ite Arab Muslims (around 60%), and Sunnis represent about 40% of the population made up of Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen. Sunnis hotly dispute these figures, including an ex-Iraqi Ambassador,[43] referring to American sources.[44] They claim that many reports or sources only include Arab Sunnis as 'Sunni', missing out the Kurdish and Turkmen Sunnis.以 国
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Ethnic Assyrians (most of whom are adherents of the Chald说说以ean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church and the AssyriaBn Church of the East) account for most of Iraq's Christian C年population, along with Armenians. Bahá'ís, Estimates for 一个the numbers of Christians su北美文学网ggest a decline from 8-10% 60 years ago to 5% at the turn o和f the century to 3% in 2008. About 600,000 have fled to Syria, Iraq or other countries or relocated to Kurdish controlnled areas. Mandaeans, Shabaks, and Yezidis also exist. Most 个如 Kurds are Sunni Muslims, although the Faili (Feyli) Kurds m中aare larcgely Shi'a.hl
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As of November 4, 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 1.6 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.[45] A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past seven months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted refugee status in the United States.[46]fo
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Main article: Culture of Iraqe这
In the most recent millennium, what is now Iraq has been made up of five cultural areas: Kurdish in the north centered on Arbil, Sunni Islamic Arabs in the center around Baghdad, Shi'a Islamic Arabs in the south centered on Basra, the Assyrians, a Christian people, living in various cities in the north, and the Marsh Arabs, a nomadic people, who live on the marshlands of the central river. There are also the Bedouin tribes primarily in southern and western Iraq, with smaller groups scattered throughout the country. Markets and bartering are the common form of trade. 8来0
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Kathem Al Saher, a well known Iraqi born pop singer, songwriter, and musician.Main articles: Music of Iraq, Kurdish music, and Assyrian music个r
Iraq is known primarily for an instrument called the oud (similar to a lute) and a rebab (similar to a fiddle); its stars include Ahmed Mukhtar and the Assyrian Munir Bashir. Until the fall of Saddam Hussein, the most popular radio station was the Voice of Youth. It played a mix of western rock, hip hop and pop music, all of which had to be imported via Jordan due to international economic sanctions. Iraq has also produced a major pan-Arab pop star-in-exile in Kathem Al Saher, whose songs include Ladghat E-Hayya, which was banned for its racy lyrics.4
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Stuffed Masgouf ready for roasting in the ovenMain article Cuisine of Iraq 我D d春
The Iraqi cuisine is generally a heavy cuisine with more 和spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops inclBude wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, and dates. Vegetables 年了Dinclude eggplant, okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Beans such 一中as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Irfqnaqi cooking are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also us北美文学网ed. Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice的 and vegetables. Although Iraq is not a coastal area, the p9opulation is used to consuming fish, however, freshwater fish is more common than saltwater fish. Masgouf is one of the most popular dishes. Biryani although influenced by the Indian cuisine, is much milder with a different mixture of s以pices and a wider variety of vegetables including potatoes,u peas, carrots and onions among others. Dolma is also one of the popular dishes. The Iraqi cuisine is famous for its extremely tender kaqbab as well as its tikka. A wide verity of spices pickles and Amba年人时 are alsso extensively used.8人j个
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Main article: Sport in Iraqxi
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[hide]v • d • e Major topics in mIraq lho
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Geography Governorates • Districts • Notable Places • Syrian Desert • Zagros Mountains • Euphrates • Tigris • Umm Qasr • Al-Faw Peninsula • Shatt al-Arab • Al-Jazira • Lake Hammar j7
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History Ancient Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent) • Sumer z• Akkadian Emipre • Babylonia and Assyria • Chaldea n• Nebuchadrezzar II • Persian Empire • Islamic conquest of Persia and Arab Empire • Ottoman Empire 北美枫月• British Mandate • Saddam Hussein • Persian Gulf War • Inv日asion o日f Kuwait • Sanctions • 2003 invasion 我ed• Post Invasion (Insurgen 一人cy) 这
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^ Declaration of Principles for a Long-Term Relationship of Cooperation and Friendship Between the Republic of Iraq and the United States of America. j们
^ Top 10 Battles for the Cont年9prol of Iraq 我hd年了l
^ Foreign Policy Magazine: The Failed States Index 2007. 上n时D
^ R北美文学网euters: Iraq world's No. 2 fa小iled state. 0
^ Munaf v. Geren, 06-1666, pg. 5 of Syllabus it
^ Online Etymology Dictionary 的 生生
^ W. Eilers (1983), "Iran and Mesopotamia" in E. Yarshate3们他r, The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambri小dge: Cambr国idge University Press 有j
^ US Department of Energy Information. 上个
^ The annihilation of Iraq. 在
^ Iraq. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 如
^ Tripp, Charles:A History of Iraq,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000 o
^ Black, George [July 1993]. Genocide in Iraq : the Anfal campaign against the Kurds / Western Asia Watch.. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1-56432-108-8. Retrieved on 2007-02-10. 来
^ Hiltermann, Joost R. [February 1994]. Bureaucracy of repression : the Iraqi government in its own words / Western Asia Watch.. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1564321274. Retrieved on 2007-02-10. 我月月
^ "Charges against Saddam dropped as genocide trial resumes", AFP, 2007 Ac
^ Hay Brown jr, Matthew, (October 23, 2000), "Iraqi Sanct2ions: Without Medicine And Supplies, k和The Children Die", Common Dreams Ne 来yws Centre, Access 生全ed 1n7 September 2006 了5A北美文学网
^ http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/2002012月9-11.html The President's State of Uni北美文学网on Address, January 29, k如2002,Washington, D.C. 北美文学网和
^ Borger, Julian (2004-10-07). There were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. guardian.co.uk. Guardian Media Group. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 花v
^ {{ http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/7/22/112615.shtml http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/libra 们try/news/2004/07/mil-040702-rferl02.htm http://www.usatoday.lcom/news/world/iraq/2004-07-01-poland-iraq-sarin_x.htm http全mu://www.swissinfo.org/eng/index.html?siteSect=143 一人&sid说=5055996 http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?BRD=1078&dept_i北美文学网d=1t不生51021&newsid=12185667&PAG=461&2rfi=9 }} l2
^ CPA Website. t 来说
^ Iraq bodycount webpage. 是
^ "Saddam death 'ends dark chapter'", BBC News, 2006-12-30. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 何4
^ "Saddam Hussein's Two Co-Defendants Hanged in Iraq", Bloomberg L.P., 2007-01-15. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 的
^ Ramadan 北美文学网hanging 北美文学网如
^ http://www.miamiherald.com/851/story/214807.html s不上
^ "Iraqi PM sees decline in Baghdad attacks" (HTML), MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-11-25. (English) 要hq
^ "U.N. reports cholera outbreak in northern Iraq" (人天pHTML), CNN. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. (English) v
^ Patrick Cockburn: “US issues threat to Iraq’s $50bnm foreign reserves in military deal”, The Independent, J月une 6, 2008. 一
^ "Warnings of Iraq refugee crisis", BBC News, 2007-01-22. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 花生这
^ Iraq Situatnq中ion Map (PDF). 们
^ A displacement crisis (30 March 2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-18. x年7月
^ 40% of middle class believed to have fled crumbling nation. gr
^ Doors closing on fleeing Iraqis. 为小wl
^ Plight of Iraqi refugees worsens as Syria, Jordan impo年和wse restrictioqns. 说s9
^ Iraqi refugees start to head home (PDF). 时 8一
^ Wagner, Thomas, (October 25, 2005), "Iraq's Constitution Adopted by Voters", ABC News, Accessed 17 September 2006 不y 日2
^ GWYNNE DYER (2008-06-11). Washington and Baghdad: the tzreaty that isn't (HTML) 6风(English).山4j The Japan Times Online 1. The Japan Times. Retrieved on 20小08-06-11. e 北美文学网k
^ Bohse3年6m, Guido & Somerville, Glen, (November 20, 2004), "G7, Paris Clu 一要b Agree on Iraq Debt Relief", Reuters, Acce不ssed 17北美文学网 Septem dyber 2006 r
^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. ds来
^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01.
^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. r北美文学网
^ BBC News - Iraq's 'devastated' Marsh Arabs (3 March 2003). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. 以 s月
^ Field Listing 如- Religions. The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved on 2008-03-17. wv
^ "Iraqis By the Numbers" by FARUQ ZIADA [1] 7j
^ Map on the distribution of religious groups, 生天from the Baker--Hamilton Committee report, page 北美文学网102 f人了这
^ U.N.: 100,000 Iraq refugees flee monthly. Alexander G. Higgins, Boston Globe, November 3, 2006 上4
^ Ann McFeatters: Iraq refugees find no refuge in Almerica. Seattle Post-InteDllig5enc北美文学网er May 25, 2007
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