就算我是盗墓者吧,而我把挖掘出来的所有财宝————
————都奉献给您!
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  伊拉克共和国 (The Republic of Iraq)首都巴格达(Baghdad),中国古称其黑衣大食。两河流域是世界古代文明的发祥地之一,公元前4700年就出现了城邦国家。公元前2000年先后建立被誉为“四大文明古国”之一的巴比伦王国、亚述帝国和后巴比伦王国。两河平原的灌溉农业已有数千年历史。z

   伊拉克位于亚洲西南部,阿拉伯半岛东北部,面积44.1839万平方公里。全国人口为2358tq上万(2001年),穆斯林约占人口的95%,其中什1在p叶派穆斯林占54.5%、逊尼派穆斯林占40.5%。阿t一7拉伯人约占全国总人口的73%,库尔德人约占21%。官方语言为阿拉伯语,北部库尔德地区的官方语言是库尔德语,东部地区有些部 北美枫落讲波斯语。通用英语。以石油业为主,农l牧业也占重要地位。主要农产品有小麦、黑z麦、大麦、稻米、棉花、烟草、温带水7果与椰枣等。椰枣输n出量居世界首位。

  

  国旗:Ct

  伊拉克国旗为长方形,长宽之比为3:2m。旗面由红白黑三个平行长方形组成。白色 一l中间有三颗绿色五角星,其间用阿拉伯文写着“真主至高无上”四种颜色是泛阿拉伯颜 个g色,分别代表穆罕默德后代的四个王朝。此年f7外红色代表勇猛和革命,白色象征宏大和和e平,黑色象征圣战胜利和石油,绿色象征土北美文学网地。三颗星象征统一,自由,社会主义。2008年1月12日,根据一项于12日提交给伊拉克议会的法案,z伊拉克新国旗将删除伊拉克前总统萨达姆在国旗上的手写体,并更换为印刷体,国旗上三颗星星的象征含义也将发生改变,改为和平、宽容和正义。c

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  伊拉克国徽上的萨拉丁雄鹰是12世纪伊斯兰圣战中领导穆斯林抗击十字军东征的库尔德族领袖的纪念物。雄鹰昂首展翅,勇猛雄壮,英勇不屈,胸部有一枚国旗图案的盾徽,暗示着祖国永在伊拉克人心中。国徽基部绿色饰匾上用阿拉伯文写着国名:“伊拉克共和国”。 g 有r

   生们

  国歌:noq

  伊拉克国歌t

  《两河流域的圣土》[1981-2003]

  词:沙菲克·阿不都尔·加巴·埃·卡玛丽 g

  曲:瓦利德·乔治·戈尔米9

  在大地上展翅的圣北美枫d风土,w7

  你的衣裳是灿烂文人dp明,

  祝福这两河流域的圣土,lD

  这包含光荣决心和博大胸怀的故乡。k

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  它的山川超越世界的巅峰, A d花

   有gu有一片令我豪的平原。qh2

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  历说zl史放射出它的光e芒,北美文学网 为如

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  哦,伊拉克,愿你永远是阿拉伯人的圣土,

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  《我的故乡》[2004] 北美枫A 1z

  词:伊卜拉欣·赫费·投千0

  曲:瓦利德·乔治·戈米尔

  我的故乡,我9的故乡!

  您的高山饱含荣光和美丽、庄严和秀丽,北美枫

  您的大气包含生命和活力、美好和希望, 日d

  我能否看见,您的繁人来年荣稳定,1d是

  我能否看见,您如繁星一般的光华,D9

  我的故乡,我的故乡!我f北美枫一月

  青年们满怀豪情为您的独立奋斗,c 8d

  我们宁愿牺牲也不做敌人的奴隶,

  我们要摆脱常年如w年耻辱和悲惨生活,D

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  我的故乡,我的故乡! 为h

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  2004年临时政府将《我的故乡》定为伊拉克新国歌,《我的故乡》这首歌在整个阿拉伯世界都很流行,原词作者是巴勒斯坦人伊卜拉欣·赫费·投千,在1936年巴勒斯坦民众反抗“以色列”占领的起义中首先唱出,很快便在整个阿拉伯世界中流行开,并曾一度成为巴勒斯坦代国歌。 我4

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  人口: 有大

   约2358万(国际货币基金组织估计数),其中阿拉伯人约占全国总人口的73%,库尔德人约占21%,其余为土耳其人,亚美尼亚人,亚述人,犹太人和伊朗人等。官方语言为阿拉伯语,北部库尔德地区的官方语言是库尔德语,东部地区有些部落讲波斯语。通用英语。伊拉克是一个伊斯兰国家,伊斯兰教为国教,全国95%的人信奉伊斯兰教,其中什叶派穆斯林占54.5%、逊尼派穆斯林占40.5%,逊尼派穆斯林统治什叶派穆斯林,引发了南部什叶派穆斯林的不满,常常发生动乱。其邻国伊朗则是逊尼派穆斯林统治什叶派穆斯林,什叶派穆斯林的斗争。两国边境常常因为派别不同引发矛盾。支持北部的库尔德人也信仰伊斯兰教,他们多属逊尼派,只有少数人信奉基督教或犹太教。 来4

  

  首都:u3r月

  巴格达(Baghdad),人口796万(2003年估计数)

  ou

  同北京时差 比格林尼治时间早3小时;比北京时间晚5小时

  

  国际电话码 964 北美枫e

  人31

  国花 红玫瑰(蔷薇科) 日月t

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  货币 伊拉克第纳尔h天 北美枫

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  行政区划:C

   全国分8个省,省下设县、乡、村。18个省是:安巴尔(anbar) 、埃尔比勒(arbil)、巴比伦(babil)、穆萨纳(muthanna)、巴格达(baghdad)、纳杰夫(najaf)、巴士拉(basrah)、尼尼微(neineva)、济加尔(dhi qar)、卡迪西亚(qadisiyah)、迪亚拉(diyala) 、萨拉赫丁(salahuddin)、杜胡克(dohuk)、苏莱曼尼亚(sulaymaniyah) 、卡尔巴拉(karbala) 、塔米姆(tameem)、米桑(misan)、瓦西特(wasit)。h9

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  省名 Muhafazat C1997 面积(km2) 北美枫6在省会 CC1997 CC1987 C自z

  安巴尔 Al-Anbār 1,023,736 138,501 拉马迪 Ar-Ramādī   192,556 生天

  巴士拉 Al-Basrah 1,556,445 19,北美文学网070 巴士拉 Al-Basrah 725,000 406,296 山年z A

  穆萨纳 Al-Muthannā 436,825 51,740 塞马沃 As-Samāwah     xz

  卡迪西亚 Al-Qādisiyah 751,331 8,153 迪瓦尼耶 Ad-Dīwānīyah   196,519 f年小C

  纳杰夫 An-Najaf 775,042 28,824 纳杰夫 An-Najaf 410,000 309,010 A2

  苏莱曼尼亚* As-Sulaymānīyah 1,362,739 17,023 苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymānīyah 525,000 364,096 C

  塔米姆 At-Ta'mīn 753,171 10,282 基尔库克 Kirkūk 525,000 418,624 北美枫

  巴比伦 Bābil [Babylon] 1,181,751 6,468 希拉 Al-Hillah   268,3lm834 9C

  巴格达 Baghdād 5,423,964 734 巴格达 Baghdād 5,423,964 3,841,268 v

  杜胡克* Dahūk 402,970 6,553 杜胡克 Dahūk     hd

  济加尔 Dhī Qār 1,184,796 12,900 纳西里耶 An-Nāsirīyah   265,937 f

  迪亚拉 Diyālā 1,135,223 19,076 巴古拜 Ba'qūbah   115,000 e

  埃尔比勒* Irbīl 1,095,992 14, l大471 埃尔比勒 Irbīl 700,000 485,968

  卡尔巴拉 Karbalā' 594,235 5,034 卡n和q尔巴拉 Karbalā' 380,000 296,705 f

  米桑 Maysān 637,126 16,072 阿马拉 Al-'Amārah   208,797 0

  尼尼微 Nīnawā [Nineveh] 2,042,852 37,323 摩苏尔 Al-Mawsil 925,000 664,221 北美枫

  萨拉赫丁 Salāh ad-Dīn 904,432 2说春x4,751 提克里特 Tikrīt  北美文学网   北美文学网

  瓦西特 生r Wasit 783,614 17,153 m以们库特 Axl-K dmūt   183,183 dlu

  伊拉克 Iraq 22,046,244 434,128 巴格达 Baghdād     e

  f

  带*的为库尔德自治区。1997年普查的城市人口还不是很精确,D不录。 8n

   vz

  历史沿革人7q

  伊拉克原来有14省,后增加至18省,各省的名称在不同期曾5经更名。 生r

  旧省(1930年代) 今省

  阿马拉 Amara 米桑 Maysan 日他B了

  埃尔比勒 Arbil 埃尔比勒 Arbil y

  巴格达 Baghdad 巴格达 Baghdad、萨拉赫丁 Salah ad-Din(1976.2设) C

  巴士拉 Basra 巴士拉 Al-Basrah 日的

  迪瓦尼耶 Diwaniya 卡迪西亚 Al-Qadisiyah、穆萨纳 Al-Muth北美文学网anna(1969改分为前我以i两省)、北美文学网f

  纳杰夫 An-Najaf(1976.2析穆萨纳)。 不年 v

  迪亚拉 Diyala 迪亚拉 Diyala j s全

  杜莱姆 Dulaim 安巴尔 Al-Anbar i

  希拉 Hilla 巴比伦 年9的Babil z

  卡尔巴拉 Karbala 卡尔巴拉 Karbala'

  基尔库克 Kirkuk 塔米姆 At-Ta'mim (部分地区属苏莱曼尼亚省) y v

  库特 Kut 瓦西特 Wasit

  摩苏尔 Mosul 尼尼微 Ninawa、杜胡克 Dahuk Bf

  蒙塔菲 Muntafiq 济加尔 Dhi Qar i

  苏莱曼尼亚 Sulaimani 苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymaniyah

  j

  库尔德族自治区: s上

  1992年,苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymaniyah、杜胡克 Dahuk和埃尔比勒 Arbil 3省划归库尔德族自治区。库尔德人生活在伊拉克北部地区。一份资料显示,伊拉克库尔德斯坦除了上面的3省外,还包括塔米姆 At-Ta'mim、迪亚拉 Diyala(部分)和尼尼微 Ninawa(部分)。库尔德人的一个临时政府在这里运作。1999年夏,临时政府曾考虑在其辖区内增设4个新省:阿克拉 Aqrah (or Akra)、哈拉比亚 Halabja (Halabjah)、拉尼亚 Rania和索兰 Soran。10月,最后形成了3个省:阿克拉 Aqrah、哈拉比亚 Halabja和哈里尔 Harir。不过国际社会并不承认,本处也不录入。不要t

  9k

  体育: 有风

  2007年7月29日夺得第14届亚洲杯冠军。 d来nx时

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  97

  二、自然地理不f

  [编辑本段]cBD

   wc

  位于亚洲西南部,阿拉伯半岛东北部。面积44.1839万平方公里(包括924平方公里水域和伊拉克、沙特中立区伊拉克部分3522平方公里)。北接土耳其,东邻伊朗,西毗叙利亚、约旦,南连沙特阿拉伯、科威特,东南濒波斯湾。出海口仅在东南端位于波斯湾头的一小段海岸。海岸线长60公里。领海宽度为12海里。西南为阿拉伯高原的部分,向东部平原倾斜;东北部有库尔德山地,西部是沙漠地带,高原与山地间有占国土大部分的美索不达米亚平原,绝大部分海拔不足百米。幼发拉底河和底格里斯河自西北向东南贯穿全境,两河在库尔纳汇合为夏台阿拉伯河,注入波斯湾。平原南部地势低洼,多湖泊与沼泽。平原以东为扎格罗斯山系的西部边缘。西南部为阿拉伯高原的一部分,分布有叙利亚沙漠。东北部山区属地中海式气候,其他为热带沙漠气候。除扎格罗斯山地有较多降水外,全国绝大部分地区气候干旱。夏季最高气温高达50℃以上,冬季在0℃左右。雨量较小,年平均降雨量由南至北100-500毫米,北部山区达700毫米。 我A花a

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  wy da

  三、经济

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  以石油业为主,农牧业也占重要地位。北部油区通过油管在黎巴嫩、叙利亚与土耳其的地中海港口输出原油,南部油田通过油管至沙特阿拉伯的红海岸延布油港输出原油。有炼油与石油化工以及纺织、食品、烟草、水泥等工业。两河平原的灌溉农业已有数千年历史。主要农产品有小麦、黑麦、大麦、稻米、棉花、烟草、温带水果与椰枣等。椰枣输出量居世界首位。畜牧业偏重在东北部地区,养值牛、羊、驴、马,西南部干旱高原上有游牧业。we

  7 北美枫A

  

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  伊拉克有悠久的历史,两河流域是世界人us古代文明的发祥地之一 ,公元前4700年 个u就出现了城邦国家。公元前2000年先后D建立被誉为“四大文明古国”之一的巴比伦王国、亚述帝国和后巴比伦王国。公元前5s50年为波斯帝国所灭。公元前4世纪被马其北美文学网顿帝国。侵占公元7世纪时被阿拉伯帝国吞并并成为阿拉伯帝国的政治、文化中心。1 d全6世纪受奥斯曼帝国统治。1920年沦为英国“委任统治区”。1921年8月宣布独立,成立伊拉克王国,在英国保护下建立费萨尔王朝。1932年获得完全独 个f立。1958年7月14日以阿卜杜勒·卡里 一他姆·卡赛姆为首的“自由军官组织”推翻费萨 dB尔王朝,成立伊拉克共和国。1963年2月8日阿拉伯复兴社会党推翻卡赛姆,建立 们w以该党为主的政权,但由党外人士阿里夫任l总统。1968年7月17日,以艾哈迈德·哈桑·贝克尔为首的复兴党军官集团联合阿卜杜勒·拉扎克·纳伊夫青年军官集团推翻了阿里夫,复兴党再度掌权,推行阿拉伯“统北美文学网一、自由、社会主义”的纲领,贝克尔出任北美文学网总统。1979年7月贝克尔因病辞职,复9兴党人萨达姆·侯赛因 接任总统。1980年伊拉克因同伊朗边界纠纷发动历时8年的两伊战争。 北美文学网

   l了我i

  1990年7月中旬,长期存在于伊拉克与科威特两国之间在石油政策、领土纠纷和债务问题等方面的争端日趋尖锐,同年8月2日,伊拉克突然出动10万大军入侵科威特,1天后,科威特全境沦陷。伊拉克入侵科威特的行动引起了国际社会的强烈反应,美国等西方国家经过5个多月外交斡旋和紧张的军事调遣后,1991年1月17日晨,以美国为首的多国部队开始向伊拉克发起了代号为“沙漠风暴”的军事打击。2月24日,多国部队向伊拉克部队发动了代号为“沙漠军刀”的地面攻势,伊拉克军队在遭受重大伤亡后于26日宣布接受联合国自伊拉克侵略科威特以来通过的12项有关决议。2月28日零时,多国部队停止了一切进攻性行动,持续了42天的海湾战争结束。2002年下半年,美国认为伊拉克支持恐怖主义,研发大规模杀伤性武器,对美在中东的利益构成了“潜在威胁”,称美国掌握了伊拥有大规模杀伤性武器的确凿证据,对伊政权一再隐瞒事实、欺骗国际社会的行为已经失去了耐心,公开表示将以武力推翻萨达姆政权,并随之大量陈兵海湾。2003年3月20日上午,北京时间10:35,美英以伊拉克拥有大规模杀伤性武器为由发动伊拉克战争,4月9日,美军攻占巴格达,萨达姆政权垮台。战后的伊拉克满目疮痍,暴力袭击事件不断,安全局势动荡不安。2005年4月,伊拉克组成过渡政府。2005年10月25日,伊拉克新宪法在全民公决中以78%支持、21%反对的高支持率获得通过。同年12月15日,伊拉克举行了伊战后首次正式议会选举,投票率达70%左右。根据伊拉克宪法规定,新议会将会任命一名总统和两名副总统,然后再由总统委员会在15天内任命总理。而总理则需要在30天内组建政府并得到议会的通过。C

   dsf

  7

  五、对外关系9B为

  [编辑本段]4

  e3以他

  奉行中立 、不结盟政策 ,但由于入侵 l我伊朗和吞并科威特而在国际上陷于孤立,1994年何0年仍受国际社会的制裁,对外交往受到限制 自1991年6月~1993年10月 ,联合国特别委员会已向伊拉克派出56个武器核查小组。安理会曾就海湾危机先后通过28项决议,伊拉克对其中一些决议有重大保留,未明确接受。在联合国的监 rn控下,伊拉克所拥有的导弹、生化等大规模毁灭性武器以及核研究设施已基本被销毁。

  伊拉克与中国于1958年8月25日建交 ,建交后两国党政、民间团体来往频繁。1990年海湾危机后,中国根据联合国安理会有关决议,中止了与伊拉克的经贸、军事往来。此后,随着形势的发展,中国与伊拉克逐渐恢复交往。2003年3月,伊拉克战争爆发后,中伊双边关系受到影响。战后,随着伊拉克政治重建的发展,中伊双边交往逐渐恢复。 cc

  伊拉克同美国在1967年中东战争后断交。两伊战争中两国关系有较大发展,1984年复交。海湾战争爆发后,1991年2月伊拉克宣布与美国断交 。1992年美 、伊围绕执行安理会决议等问题多次发生对抗;美国一再声称要用武力迫使伊拉克执行决议。克林顿上台后,伊拉克表示愿同美国对话,美国强调伊拉克必须全面执行安理会决议,并坚持对伊拉克保持国际制裁。ut

  伊拉克与苏联于1944年建交 。1972 年两国签订友好条约,一度关系密切。苏联反对伊拉克侵吞科威特。苏联解体后 ,伊拉克承认独联体11个成员国 、波罗的海3国和格鲁吉亚共和国的独立。俄罗斯支持一切迫使伊拉克遵守联合国决议的措施,并赞同美国等在伊拉克南部设“禁飞区”。2

  海湾战争爆发前,伊拉克与绝大部分阿北美文学网拉伯国家关系良好,同海湾国家关系密切。海湾战争后,阿拉伯国家不同程度地反对伊拉克侵略。海湾阿拉伯国家和埃及、叙利亚、摩洛哥派兵参加多国部队或为多国部队提供方便。战后多数阿拉伯国家停止同伊拉克的官方往来, 来日并要求伊拉克执行联合国安理会的有关决议 6生。但主tzd张维护伊拉 一r克的统一和领土完整。8和是n8z

  两伊战争停火后,伊拉克和伊朗仍处于敌对状态。海湾危机发生后 ,伊拉克于1990年8月正式宣布从伊朗领土撤回军队,10月两国复交。但由于海湾战争中伊拉克让伊朗保管的飞机以及战俘问题未获解决,加之伊拉克指责伊朗支持其南部什叶派穆斯林的反政府武装活动,两伊关系终未得到妥善解决。x

  3花5

   我国驻伊拉克使馆大使:杨洪林。 g

  

  地址:AL-MANSOUR MELIA HOTEL SALHIYAH, 8 FEB, POST OFFICE;rw来

   有小

  信箱:P.O.BOX 8020, BAGHDAD, IRAQ;我们B8

  c人花个

  值班电话:00873-762523077;

  n9他

  电话:001-914-8227529/30,009647901912315/6;北美枫q何

  i g

  传真:00873-600323984;

  

  电子邮箱:chinaemb_iq@mfa.gov.cn vz

  hahC

  m伊拉克驻华使馆馆址:北京朝阳区建国门外秀水e北街25号。 dy

  北美枫

  电话: 65323385,65321873D A

  年日3年大A

  大使:穆罕默德·伊斯梅尔(Dr. 一f Mohammeed Ismail)n A

  j

  我有

  六、伊拉克国王不花r

  [编辑本段]k

  

  在位时间 伊拉克国王 生卒

  1921年8月23日-1933年9月8日 费萨尔·伊本·侯赛因 1883年 - 1933年

  1933年9月8日-1939年4月4日 加齐·伊本·费萨尔 1912年 - 1939年 北美文学网

  1939年4月4日-1958年7月14日 费萨尔二世 1935年 - 1958年 北美文学网

   赛义德·伊本·侯赛因 1898年 - 1970年 j年l我

   拉阿德·伊本·赛义德 1936年 - Ar

  

  1958年伊拉克发生政变,费萨尔二世、王储阿布达拉及其他王室成员全部被杀,哈希姆家族费萨尔支系绝嗣,汉志国王侯赛因·伊本·阿里的四子赛义德(其时身为伊拉克陆军军官)遂自称伊拉克国王。1970年赛义德去世后由其子拉阿德继承“伊拉克国王”的头衔。n来6

  zk

  人u时

  七、当地习俗

  [编辑本段]

  饮食特点 北美枫d4

   伊拉克人在饮食嗜好上有如下特点:g3们u

  1、注重 讲究菜肴鲜嫩,香味浓郁,注重饭菜要质高量小。说dc

  2、口味 一般口味喜清淡人中t,偏爱 一a甜味。北美文学网z

  3、主食 以面(烤饼)为主食,爱吃甜点o心。ni

  4、副食 爱吃牛肉、羊肉、鱼、鸡、鸭等;也喜欢土豆、甜菜、卷心菜、黄瓜、西红柿、洋葱等蔬菜。 北美文学网h8

  5、调料 爱用糖、胡椒粉、葱、橄榄油等。un9k

  6、制法 对煎、烤、炸等烹调方法制作的菜肴偏爱。 Ahz

  7、中餐 喜爱中国的清真菜。北美文学网

  8、菜谱 什锦拼盘、炸八块、手抓羊内北美文学网、香酥鸡、干烧牛肉丝、炒山芋、挂烤鸭子、番茄牛肉排等。hh

  9、饮料 爱吃雪糕,喜欢喝红茶,惯用精巧的小壶煮,然后加上糖。有些人也喜欢喝啤酒。我上z

  0、果品 爱吃桃、西瓜、哈蜜瓜、橄榄和香蕉等;干果乐于品尝蜜枣、杏仁和葡萄干等。

  u

  日常饮食Bi

   伊拉克象大多数阿拉伯国家一样,主要3ov的食物是大米,最广泛的食谱是炒饭。当然,也喜欢吃白面包。伊拉克家家户户都会腌 一国一大罐橄榄,每顿饭之前山的v都嚼上几个。北美文学网0

  zu

   伊拉克人不太爱吃青菜,最常见的是黄瓜和西红柿,一般是切碎了加点橄榄油和柠檬汁生吃。有时候直接把青菜稍微烤一烤就可以吃了。习惯把枣汁和牛奶、羊奶混在一起食用,并视之为美味佳肴。许多传统菜肴非常接近叙利亚和黎巴嫩菜肴,如烤绵羊肉、烤羊肉串以及某些在炉膛中制的炸肉。伊拉克菜肴具有较浓烈的味道,使用很多辣椒、葱、蒜以及各种各样的辣根和香料。相当普遍吃用水果制的甜食、馅饼等面食,以及酸奶、酸乳渣和奶酪。伊拉克人不吃凝汁菜肴,很少饮用醇饮料。较普遍饮用的是含很多泡沫的酸奶“些明”和各种的果汁类饮料,如扁桃汁。

  i

   古斯:一种泛阿拉伯食物,把米饭用油炒过,焖熟,加上好多种调味料,有些在米饭上面撒上绞碎的米粉、豆子和葡萄干或者干果,然后在米饭上面加上一大块烤好的羊肉或者烤鸡块,上桌前还给你配两碗浓汤。吃起来很香。i 生j

  

   烤鱼:底格里斯河的鱼非常肥,说它肥一点都不过分,最小都有1公斤多,大的能有六、七公斤,很吓人。伊拉克人吃鱼的方法似乎只有一种“玛斯古夫”,是烤鱼在阿拉伯语里叫法。所有到伊拉克的人如果没有吃过这种烤鱼实在是一大遗憾,底格里斯河鱼又大又肥,最适合做烤鱼了。伊拉克人一般都喜欢就地取材,把鱼弄干净后,不用刮鱼鳞的,用结实的树枝在地上打几个桩子,把鱼整个挂上去,然后用木块或者是从椰枣树上砍下来的干树枝在旁边堆起火,让鱼就着热气烤,等烤得差不多了,把鱼放在铁盘子里,然后将整个盘子放在火堆的余烬里再热一热,浇上酱汁,加上西红柿、洋葱片就可以了。 sun们时

  我g

   多尔麦:把新鲜的葡萄叶放进开水里面 1k稍微一烫,裹上熟的米饭和肉馅,做成长方圆圆的形状,加上柠檬汁,还有香料,e放进烤箱焖一会儿就可以了。也有人拿西葫芦、青椒、茄子来做,譬如把西葫芦掏空, 6如然后往里面塞材料就可以了。当地人有些会做得很酸。据说,伊朗s也有多尔麦这 生要种食物。5

  ke

   库巴:把大米蒸熟后捣烂,在里面裹进肉馅,然后放进油里面炸成金黄色,形状或圆形或椭圆形。这是一种非常常见的伊拉克家庭食物。据说库巴是从叙利亚流传过来的。u

  

   红茶:伊拉克人喝红茶喜欢用一种特有2的小玻璃茶杯,叫“阿斯塔”。据说红茶是从土耳其流传过来的,因为以前伊2拉克被奥斯曼土耳其帝国统治过相当长的时 r说间。伊拉克人特别喜欢在红茶里加很多的糖,有一些人喝茶的时候,一杯茶里面糖8花自就放了半杯,甜得嗓子都x疼。北美文学网

  人来如

   水烟:“纳拉其里”,阿拉伯男人喜欢在吃完饭后抽的一种传统的水烟,大街小巷里面都能看见水烟馆,男人们大多喜欢安静的坐着一个人若有所思的抽烟,因此阿拉伯烟馆里面总是安静的。2

  

   椰枣:“真主安拉赐予伊拉克的礼物”年时3,每一个 Cs伊拉克人都深深的以此为傲。全世界有80%的椰枣树在伊拉克境内。椰枣树在伊拉克无处不在,巴格达郊区,成片成片的椰枣林风光是任何其他国家都比不上的。每到了椰枣成熟的季节都可看到一大丛一大丛成熟了的椰枣烂在地上,因为椰枣太多了,只有蚂蚁才去光顾那里面丰富的糖分。但在也多亏了椰枣,帮助了许多伊拉克穷人度过了艰难的制裁生活。m

  fy

   阿拉伯大饼:是伊拉克人的主食之一,类似中国的牛舌饼大小的酵山5自面烤饼。吃时用手扯成小块,夹以牛肉、羊D肉或番茄、生黄瓜等一起吃。到外面餐厅吃饭,无论你点了什么,人家都会先给你端上z点黄瓜西红柿,然后就是几张大 d和饼,而且是免费的。还有一种主食叫“斯姆 人k那”,长三角形的大面包,伊拉克人一般喜欢买这种面包回家,而且很5便宜。x

   卡巴巴:泛阿拉伯烤肉串,不过跟中国的烤肉串不一样,他们喜欢把肉剁碎了,活上一点面粉和调料来烤,烤熟了以后并不直接吃,他们喜欢用大饼或者“斯姆那”裹着吃,有时候他们也喜欢把洋葱、西红柿等和肉放在一起烤。f

  y

  饮食风俗nd6

   伊拉克人的餐桌上一般是看不见刀、叉、勺等餐具的,只有水杯、盘子等食具,他们惯以右手抓饭入口。他们习惯食用熟透的菜肴,略有生口就不吃。伊拉克不像其他阿拉伯国家那样,在那里可以买到酒类饲料。伊拉克南部的什叶派穆斯林不吃兔肉。伊拉克人忌讳左手传递东西或食物。他们视左手为肮脏之手,认为用肮脏之手来传递东西或食物,实际上是对人的一种污辱。他们忌讳客人赴宴餐毕不及时洗手告辞,认为饭店拖延或迟迟不走为贪吃和不礼貌的表现。9年来m

  北美文学网

  社交禁忌o

   伊拉克穆斯林生活全部继承了伊斯兰教8国4的宗教传统,但他们又远比近邻的阿拉伯穆斯林国家开化得多。在伊拉克戴面纱的妇女已不多见,国家也逐步施行了一些开放政策,使之开始形成了现代化与宗教并存的局面。他们对赴约总习惯迟到,认为这是自己的一种礼节风度。伊拉克男子有“蓄须为美”北美文学网的习俗,凡是成年男子都蓄髻须。伊拉克人j偏爱玫瑰花,并视其为国花。他们最爱雄鹰l。认为鹰是力量与智慧的象征。伊拉克人在北美文学网与亲朋好友见面时,男子习惯相互拥抱,把 人d脸贴一贴,然后各自扪胸俯首,嘴里说着祝愿的话。他们在与客人告别时,一般都要施贴脸吻别礼。妇女之间施贴脸吻别礼时,其 生u感情表现得极为丰富,她们“吻”得真挚、热烈、并要发出“吧吧”的吻声。他们认为这样的“吻”才显出互相间的尊重和爱戴。他们讨厌蓝色,视蓝色为魔鬼的色彩taB。他们忌讳黑色,认为黑色是丧葬的色彩,并给人以不幸的印象。他们忌讳别人送给他们的礼物中带有星星的图案,因为他们与以我7花色列怀有刻骨仇恨,以色 北美枫列的国旗就是以星g星为图1e天案的。s

  Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūrīyat Al-Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.[1] It shares borders with Kuwait and Saun在xdi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the west, Syria to the nogrthwest, Turkey to the north, and Iran to the east. It has ja very narrow section of coastline lat Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf. There are two ma2jor flowing rivers: the Tigris and the Euphrates. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the desert landscape that covers most of West我h8ern Asia.4

  

  The capital city, Baghdad, is in the center-east. Iraq's rich history dates back to ancient Mesopotamia. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is identified as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing. During its long history, Iraq has been the center of the Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian and Abbasid empires, and part of the Achaemenid, Macedonian, Parthian, Sassanid, Umayyad, Mongol, Ottoman, and British empires.[2]

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  Since an invasion in 2003, a multinational coalition of forces, mainly American and British, has occupied Iraq. The invasion has had wide-reaching consequences: increased civil violence, establishment of a parliamentary democracy, the removal and execution of former authoritarian President Saddam Hussein, official recognition and widespread political participation of Iraq's Kurdish minority and Shi'ite Arab majority, significant economic growth, building of new infrastructure, and use of the country's huge reserves of oil. According to the 2007 Failed States Index, produced by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Foreign Policy magazine and the Fund for Peace, Iraq has recently emerged as the world's second most unstable country,[3] after Sudan,[4] and the United States has recently referred to it in court proceedings as "an active theater of combat."[5] Iraq is developing a parliamentary democracy composed of 18 governorates (known as muhafadhat).D

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  The origin of the name Iraq (Arabic: العراق 'al-‘Irāq, Turkish: Irak, Assyrian: ܥܪܐܩ, Kurdish: عيَراق) is disputed. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (or Erech)[6] ; another maintains according to Professor Wilhelm Eilers, The name al-‘Irāq, for all its Arabic appearance, is derived from Middle Persian erāq "lowlands".[7]

  

  Under the Persian Sassanid dynasty, there was a region called "Erak Arabi," referring to the part of the south weste 一一rn region of the Persian Empire that is now part of souther了说日n Iraq. The name Al-Iraq was used by the Arabs themselves, from the 6th century,北美文学网 for the land Iraq covers.

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  The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. In English, the name is pronounced as either [ɪ.ˈɹɑ(ː)k] ( the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary) or [ɪ.ˈɹæk]] (北美枫小如listed fi全日天rst by MQD).北美文学网0

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  A scaled map of Iraq showing major cities, the Euphrates & the Tigris, the unnamed peak, and the surrounding area.Iraq is located at 33°00′N, 44°00′E. Spanning 437,072 km² (168,743 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay.x

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  Iraq mainly consists of desert, but between the two majorz rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) the area is fertile, the rivxers carrying about 60 million cubic metres (78 million cu. k他yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country 北美枫j is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 metres (11,847 ft) point, unnamed on the map opposi8bate, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has山e有 a small coastline along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: ارو北美文学网ندرود among Iranians) there used to be mar 6bshlands, but many were d何以jrained in the 1990s.北美文学网h日

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  The local climate is mostly desert, with mild to cool winters and dry, hot, cloudless summers. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding.Bu年5人

  

  Comprising 112 billion barrels (17,800,000,000 m³) of proven oil, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of Oil reserves; the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90% of the country remains unexplored. These regions could yield an additional 100 billion barrels (16,000,000,000 m³). Iraq's oil production costs are among the lowest in the world, but only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.[8]4 日C

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  History

  Main article: History of Iraqo

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  Ancient Mesopotamiajr

  Main article: History of Mesopotamiau

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  The upper part of the stela of Hammurabi's code of lawsThe region of Iraq was historically known as Mesopotamia (Gre 6这ek: "between the rivers"). It was home to the world's 全风jfirst known civilization, the Sumerian culture, followed by the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures, whose infgluence extended into neighboring regions as early as 5000 BuC. These civilizations produced some of the earliest writingg and some of the first sciences, mathematics, laws and philosophies of the world; hence its common epithet, t 生fhe "Cradle of Civilizati北美文学网on".mch

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  In the sixth century BC, Cyrus the Great conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Mesopotamia was subsumed in the Achaemenid Persian Empire for nearly four centuries. Alexander the Great conquered the region again, putting it under Macedonian rule for nearly two centuries. A Central Asian tribe of ancient Iranian peoples known as the Parthians later annexed the region, followed by the Sassanid Persians. The region remained a province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries, until the 7th century.7 来1

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  Main articles: Caliphate, Arab Empire, and Islamic Golden Agey

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  The Arab empire and the caliphs during their greatest extent.

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   Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750Beginning in the seventh century AD, Islam spread to what is now Iraq during the Islamic conquest of Persia, led by the Muslim Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law Ali moved his capital to Kufa "fi al-Iraq" when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Cordoba.) 为天

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  The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdoad in the 8th century as their capital, and it became the l8中Deading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world 6他for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural c了自中ity of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more thazn a millio1为ln, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city during the sack of Baghdad in the 1c3th century.

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  Main articles: Battle of Baghdad (1258) and Mongol invasionstz

  In 1257, Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu demanded surrender but the caliph refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, Baghdad qwas decimated. Estimates of the number of dead range from 2了无300,000 to a mqillion.8日e

  

  The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and The Grand Library of Baghdad (Arabic بيت الحكمة Bayt al-Hikma, lit., House of Wisdom), which contained countless, precious, historical documents. The city would never regain its status as major center of culture and influence. 北美枫

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  In 1401, warlord of Turco-Mongol descent Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) invaded Iraq. After the capture of Bagdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).[9]

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  Ottoman Empire 北美枫

  Main articles: Ottoman Empire, Mamluk rule in Iraq, Mesopotamian campaign, and Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire 为gy

  Later, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535. The Ottomans lost Baghdad to the Iranian Safavids in 1609, and took it back in 1632. From 1747 to 1831, Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mamluk officers of Georgian origin who enjoyed local autonomy from the Sublime Porte.[10] In 1831, the direct Ottoman rule was imposed and lasted until World War I, during which the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers.i

  

  During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of 3年gthe area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the r6Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers8x为 in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown bjut the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, though only 112 一l,000 were f日他combat troops. 们在

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  During World War I the British and French divided Western Asia in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Treaty of Sèvres, which was ratified in the Treaty of Lausanne, led to the ad9vent of modern Western Asia and Republic of Turkey. The Lea rCgue of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Leban山个ion and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Iraq and Palestine (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: Palesti C6ne and Transjoma小rdan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula2 became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

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  Main articles: British Mandate of Mesopotamia and Assyrian independence9

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  British troops entering Baghdad.At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad, and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state. vr

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  For three out of four centuries of Ottoman rule, Baghdad was the seat of administration for the vilayets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra. During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.[specify][11] 生生

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  Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bas9es and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi of Iraq ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1931D93, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. The United Kingdom invaded Iraq in 1941, for fear that the government of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani might cum人要t oil supplies to Western nations, and because of his strong ideological leanings to Nazi Germany. A military occupation followed the restoration of the Hashemite monarchy, and the occupation ended on October 26, 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashe CCmite monarchy were Nuri al-Said, the autocratic prime minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, an advisor to the king Faisal II.全花Cx

  

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  The reinstated Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when it was overthrown by a coup d'etat of the Iraqi Army, known as the 14 July Revolution. The coup brought Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim to power. He withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations with the Soviet Union, but his government lasted only until 1963, when it was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Salam Arif died in 1966 and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, assumed the presidency. In 1968, Rahman Arif was overthrown by the Arab Socialist Baath Party. This movement gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979, while killing many of his opponents. g

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  Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, President of Iraq, 1979-2003.In 1979, Saddam Hussein took power as Iraqi President, after killing and arresting his leadership rivals. Shortly after taking power, the political situation in Iraq's neighbour Iran changed drastically after the success of the Islamic Revolution of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in a Shi'ite Muslim theocratic state being established. This was seen as a dangerous change in the eyes of the Iraqi government, as Iraq too had a Shi'ite majority and was ruled by Hussein's government which, apart from having numerous Sunnis occupying leading positions, had a pan-Arab but non-religious ideology. This left the country's Shiite population split between the members and supporters of the Ba'ath Party, and those who sympathised with the Iranian position. In 1980, Hussein claimed that Iranian forces were trying to topple his government[citation needed] and declared war on Iran. Saddam Hussein supported the Iranian Islamic socialist organization called the People's Mujahedin of Iran which opposed the Iranian government. During the Iran-Iraq War Iraqi forces attacked Iranian soldiers and civilians with chemical weapons. Hussein's regime was notorious for its human rights abuses; a well-known example is the Al-Anfal campaign[12][13][14] as well as attacks on Kurd civilians inside Iraq, such as the Halabja massacre, as punishment for elements of Kurdish support of Iran. The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to American and Western support for Iraq. This was part of the US policy of "dual containment" of Iraq and Iran. g

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  Under Saddam Hussein's rule, a number of cultural project2s were undertaken. The ruins of Babylon were rebuilt to represent the 9ancient city as seen here.In 1977, the Iraqi government ordcered the construction of Osirak (also spelled Osiraq) at th 个们e Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center, 18 km (11 miles) south-east of Baghdad. It was a 40 MW light-water nuclear materials testing reactor (MTR). In 1981, Israeli aircraft bomb了m0ed the facility, in order to prevent the country from using the reactor for creation of nuclear weapons. 们来

  

  Main article: 1说 Gulf War9 生z

  In 1990, faced with economic disaster following the end of the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein looked to the oil-rich neighbour of Kuwait as a target to invade to use its resources and money to rebuild Iraq's economy. The Iraqi government claimed that Kuwait was illegally slant drilling its oil pipelines into Iraqi territory, a practice which it demanded be stopped; Kuwait rejected the notion that it was slant drilling, and Iraq followed this in August 1990 with the invasion of Kuwait. Upon successfully occupying Kuwait, Hussein declared that Kuwait had ceased to exist and it was to be part of Iraq, against heavy objections from many countries and the United Nations. v

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  The UN agreed to pass sanctions against Iraq and demanded its immediate withdrawal from Kuwait. Iraq refused and the UN Security Council in 1991 unanimously voted for military action against Iraq. The United Nations Security Council, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, adopted Resolution 678, authorizing U.N. member states to use "all necessary means" to "restore international peace and security in the area." The United States, which had enormous vested interests in the oil supplies of the Western Asia,[citation needed] led an international coalition into Kuwait and Iraq. The coalition forces entered the war with more advanced weaponry than that of Iraq, though Iraq's army was one of the largest armed forces in Western Asia at the time. Despite being a large of military force, the Iraqi army was no match for the advanced weaponry of the coalition forces and the air superiority that the U.S. Air Force provided. Iraq responded to the invasion by launching SCUD missile attacks against Israel and Saudi Arabia. Hussein hoped that by attacking Israel, the Israeli military would be drawn into the war, which he believed would rally anti-Israeli sentiment in neighbouring Arab countries and cause those countries to support Iraq. However, Hussein's gamble failed, as Israel reluctantly accepted a U.S. demand to remain out of the conflict to avoid inflaming tensions. The Iraqi armed forces were quickly destroyed, and Hussein eventually accepted the inevitable and ordered a withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Before the forces were withdrawn, however, Hussein ordered them to sabotage Kuwait's oil wells, which resulted in hundreds of wells being set ablaze, causing an economic and ecological disaster in Kuwait.n49

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  The aftermath of the war saw the Iraqi military, especially its air force, destroyed. In return for peace, Iraq was forced to accept "no-fly zones," dismantle all chemical and biological weapons it possessed, and end any attempt to create or purchase nuclear weapons, to be assured by the allowing UN weapons inspectors to evaluate the dismantlement of such weapons. Finally, Iraq would face sanctions if it disobeyed any of the demands. s中北美文学网

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  Shortly after the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim Iraqis engaged in protests against Hussein's regime, but Hussein responded with violent repression against Shia Muslims, and the protests came to an end.[citation needed] After the war, Iraq on a number of occasions throughout the 1990s was accused of breaking its obligations, including the discovery in 1993 of a plan to assassinate former President George H. W. Bush, and the removal of UN weapon inspectors in 1998 (the Iraqi government claimed that it suspected that some inspectors were spies for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency)[citation needed]. As a result of these violations, economic sanctions were imposed upon Iraq.w5

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  It is estimated more than 500,000 Iraqi children died as a result of the sanctions.[15] Critics, particularly neoconservatives in the United States after 1998, claimed that containment of Iraq through sanctions without weapons inspectors in the area was sufficient to prevent Iraq from rebuilding its weapons of mass destruction and demanded a hardline approach to Iraq, demanding compliance with inspections on penalty of war.[citation needed] The Bush administration made a number of allegations against Iraq, including that Iraq was acquiring uranium from Niger and that Iraq had secret weapons laboratories in trailers and isolated facilities throughout Iraq.[citation needed]; as of June 2008, none of these allegations have proven true. Saddam Hussein, under pressure from the U.S. and the U.N., finally agreed to allow weapons inspectors to return to Iraq in 2002, but by that time the Bush administration had already begun pushing for war.o

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  Downtown Baghdad monument of Saddam Hussein vandalized by Iraqis shortly after the invasion of Coalition forces in April 2003.Main article: 2003 invasion of Iraqt

  Further information: Irmaq War zo

  On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition in 生山vaded Iraq, with the stated reason that Iraq had failed to f山5abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons development progra5m in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. The United States asqserted that because Iraq was in material breach of Resoluti1年的on 687, the armed forces authorization of Resolution 678 wa全C1s revived. The United States further justified the invasion by claiming that Iraq had or was developing weapons of mass destruction and stating a desire to remove an oppressive 了9bdictator from power and bring democracy to Iraq. In his Sta 一自te of the Union Address on Januarly 29, 2002, President George W. Bush declared that Iraq was a member of the "Axis of Evil", and that, like North Korea北美文学网 and Iran, Iraq's attempt to acquire weapons of mass destruction全在y posed a serious threat to U.S. national securgity. y月Bush added,x北美文学网

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  Iraq continues to flaunt its hostilities toward America and to support terror. The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade... This is a regime that agreed to international inspections — then kicked out inspectors. This is a regime that has something to hide from the civilized world... By seeking weapons of mass destruction, these regimes [Iran, Iraq and North Korea] pose a grave and growing danger. They could provide these arms to terrorists, giving them the means to match their hatred."[16]B我北美枫o人

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  However, according to a comprehensive U.S. government report, no weapons of mass destruction have been found since the invasion.[17] Yet, there are news reports which contradict this.[18] j

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  Main articles: Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present, Insurgency in Iraq, and Civil war in Iraqhk

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  Occupation zones in Iraq after invasion.Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq.[19] Government authority was transferred to an Iraqi Interim Government in June 2004, and a permanent government was elected in October 2005. More than 140,000 Coalition troops remain in Iraq.y

  

  Some studies have placed the number of civilians deaths as high as 655,000 (see The Lancet study), although most studies have put the number much lower; the Iraq Body Count project has a figure of less than 10% of The Lancet Study, though IBC organizers acknowledge that their statistics are an undercount as they base their information off of media-confirmed deaths. The website of the Iraq body count states, "Our maximum therefore refers to reported deaths - which can only be a sample of true deaths unless one assumes that every civilian death has been reported. It is likely that many if not most civilian casualties will go unreported by the media."[20].花v

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  After the inv人tgasion, al-Qaeda took advantage of the insurgency年29 t北美文学网o entrench itself in the country concurrently with an Arab r6-Sunni led insurgencqy andx sectarian violence.北美枫n0

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  On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was hanged.[21] Hussein's half-brother and former intelligence chief Barzan Hassan and former chief judge of the Revolutionary Court Awad Hamed al-Bandar were likewise executed on January 15, 2007;[22] as was Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's former deputy and former vice-president (originally sentenced to life in prison but later to death by hanging), on March 20, 2007.[23] Ramadan was the fourth and last man in the al-Dujail trial to die by hanging for crimes against humanity.j

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  At the Anfal genocide trial, Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka Chemical Ali), former defense minister Sultan Hashim Ahmed al-Tay, and former deputy Hussein Rashid Mohammed were sentenced to hang for their role in the Al-Anfal Campaign against the Kurds on June 24, 2007.[citation needed]hA 生天

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  Acts of sectarian violence have led to claims of ethnic cleansing in Iraq, and there have been many attacks on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, Mandeans, Assyrians and others.[24]

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  Although violence has declined from the summer of 2007,[25] the U.N. reported of a cholera outbreak in Iraq.[26]c

  

  The mandate of the multinational force in Iraq, last extended by UN resolution 1790, will end on December 31, 2008. The Independent has reported that the US is seeking a “strategic alliance” giving US forces broad freedom in continuing to operate in Iraq.[27]e

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  Iraqi dias 来ypora 北美枫6

  Main articles: Iraqi d 1这iaspora and Refugees of Iraq kh

  The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. There have been many large-scale waves of emigration from Iraq, beginning early in the regime of Saddam Hussein and continuing through to 2007. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country in recent years, mostly to Jordan and Syria.[28] Although some expatriates returned to Iraq after the 2003 invasion, the flow had virtually stopped by 2006.[29]

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  In addition to the 2 million Iraqis who fled to neighbouring countries, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates the number of people currently displaced within the country at 1.9 million.[30]

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  Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the U.N. said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[31] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.[32][33]kh的

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  In recent times the Diaspora seems to be reversing with the increased security of the last few months, and the Iraqi government claims that so far 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October of 2007 alone.[34].北美枫

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  Government and politics 北美枫

  

  Government lfr

  Main article: Federal government of Iraq

  The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as an Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. 8生

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  Currently, Kurdistan is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official militia, the Peshmerga. Iraq itself is divided into eighteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat, singular - muhafadhah, Kurdish: پاریزگه Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas).h和北美枫2l

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  Iraq was under Baath Party rule from 1968 to 2003; in 1979 Saddam Hussein took control and remained president until 2003 after which he was unseated by a US-led invasion. 为d

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  On October 15, 2005, more than 63% of eligible Iraqis came out across the country to vote on whether to accept or reject the new constitution. On October 25, the vote was certified and the constitution passed with a 78% overall majority, with the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.[35] The new constitution had overwhelming backing among the Shia and Ķurdish communities, but was overwhelmingly rejected by Arab Sunnis. Three majority Arab Sunni provinces rejected it (Salah ad Din with 82% against, Ninawa with 55% against, and Al Anbar with 97% against).不们

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  Under the terms of the constitution, the country con 来7ducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 们1 15 to elect a new government. The overwhelming majority of2 all three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lzines, turning this vote into more of an eth北美文学网nic census than a competitive election, and setting the stage for the division of the country along ethnic ulines.

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  Iraqi politicians have been under significant threat by the various factions that have promoted violence as a political weapon. The ongoing violence in Iraq has been incited by an amalgam of religious extremists that believe an Islamic Caliphate should rule, old sectarian regime members that had ruled under Saddam that want back the power they had, and Iraqi nationalists that are fighting the U.S. military presence. g

  不6

  Iraq has number of ethnic minority groups in Iraq: Kurds, Assyrians, Mandeans, Iraqi Turkmen, Shabaks and Roma. These groups have not enjoyed equal status with the majority Arab populations throughout Iraq's eighty-five year history. Since the establishment of the "no-fly zones" following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the situation of the Kurds has changed as they have established their own autonomous region. The remainder of these ethnic groups continue to suffer discrimination on religious or ethnic grounds.花我北美枫

  n无p

  In 2008, the U.S. pressured Iraq to enter an alliance with imposing conditions. If Iraq enters this alliance, the U.S. plans to establish 50 military bases in Iraq that will be stationed with U.S. troops. U.S. personnel will also enjoy full legal immunity and the U.S. won't be required to notify the Iraqi government when ot how many of its troops enter or leave the country.[36]

  

  

  EconomyD人春的

  Main article: Economy of Iraqhq

   为上4

  An old 50 dinar billIraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments. Iraq suffered economic losses from the war of at least US$100 billion. After hostilities ended in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. A combination of low oil prices, repayment of war debts (estimated at around US$3 billion a year) and the costs of reconstruction resulted in a serious financial crisis which was the main short term motivation for the invasion of Kuwait. s何 A

   为为

  On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown by $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[37] 12

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  At the end of 2005, and in the first half of 2006, Iraq izmplemented a restructuring of about $20 billion of commercial debt claims on1不6 terms comparable to that of its November 2004 Paris Clu 北美枫nb agreement (i.e. with an 8z0% writeoff). Iraq offered to its larger c2laimants a U.S. dollar denominated bond maturing in 2028. Smaller commerci了sbal claimants received a cash settlement of comparable value.

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  Main article: Reconstructiuon of IraqDj

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  An April 2008 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 28,221,181.[38]m

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  Seventy-five to eighty percent of Iraq's population are Arabs; the other major ethnic groups are the Kurds at 15-20%,[39] Assyrians, Iraqi Turkmen and others (5%),[40] who mostly live in the north and northeast of the country. Other distinct groups are Persians and Armenians. About 20,000 [41] Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq. 日不j

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  Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. Assyrian and Tnp4urkmen are official languages in areas where the Assyrians and Iraqi Turkmen are located respectively. Armenian and Pe 北美枫grsian are also zspoken but to a lesser extent. English is the most commonly spoken We北美文学网s 一生tern language.0

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  Religious composition includes:不iB中

  

  Muslim, 97%; Christian or other, 3%.[42]

  There are no official figures available, mainly due to the highly politically charged nature of the subject. Two estimates of the Muslim proportions of the population are:9

  w无 8z

  Shi'a as much as 60%, Sunni about 40% (source: Britannicanpo, Religion sectionq of Iraq article). 了要是北美枫

  Shi'a 60%-65%, Sunni 32%-37% (source: CIA World Fact Book).B为e

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  The Shi'a are mostly Arabs, some are Turkmen and Faili Kurds, and almost all are Twelver school. Sunnis are composed of Arabs, Turkmen who are Hanafi school and Kurds who are Shafi school.

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  According to most western sources the majority of Iraqis are Shi'ite Arab Muslims (around 60%), and Sunnis represent about 40% of the population made up of Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen. Sunnis hotly dispute these figures, including an ex-Iraqi Ambassador,[43] referring to American sources.[44] They claim that many reports or sources only include Arab Sunnis as 'Sunni', missing out the Kurdish and Turkmen Sunnis.

  C年ud

  Ethnic Assyrians (most of whom are adherents of the Chald说说以ean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church and the AssyriaBn Church of the East) account for most of Iraq's Christian C年population, along with Armenians. Bahá'ís, Estimates for 一个the numbers of Christians su北美文学网ggest a decline from 8-10% 60 years ago to 5% at the turn of the century to 3% in 2008. About 600,000 have fled to Syria, Iraq or other countries or relocated to Kurdish controlnled areas. Mandaeans, Shabaks, and Yezidis also exist. Most 个如 Kurds are Sunni Muslims, although the Faili (Feyli) Kurds m中aare larcgely Shi'a.hl

  年大年

  As of November 4, 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 1.6 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.[45] A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past seven months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted refugee status in the United States.[46]fo

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  Culture 为的

  Main article: Culture of Iraqe

  In the most recent millennium, what is now Iraq has been made up of five cultural areas: Kurdish in the north centered on Arbil, Sunni Islamic Arabs in the center around Baghdad, Shi'a Islamic Arabs in the south centered on Basra, the Assyrians, a Christian people, living in various cities in the north, and the Marsh Arabs, a nomadic people, who live on the marshlands of the central river. There are also the Bedouin tribes primarily in southern and western Iraq, with smaller groups scattered throughout the country. Markets and bartering are the common form of trade. 8来0

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  Music

  

  Kathem Al Saher, a well known Iraqi born pop singer, songwriter, and musician.Main articles: Music of Iraq, Kurdish music, and Assyrian musicr

  Iraq is known primarily for an instrument called the oud (similar to a lute) and a rebab (similar to a fiddle); its stars include Ahmed Mukhtar and the Assyrian Munir Bashir. Until the fall of Saddam Hussein, the most popular radio station was the Voice of Youth. It played a mix of western rock, hip hop and pop music, all of which had to be imported via Jordan due to international economic sanctions. Iraq has also produced a major pan-Arab pop star-in-exile in Kathem Al Saher, whose songs include Ladghat E-Hayya, which was banned for its racy lyrics.4

  

  3个B

  CuisineC

  

  Stuffed Masgouf ready for roasting in the ovenMain article Cuisine of Iraq 我D d春

  The Iraqi cuisine is generally a heavy cuisine with more spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops inclBude wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, and dates. Vegetables 年了Dinclude eggplant, okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Beans such 一中as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Irfqnaqi cooking are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also us北美文学网ed. Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Although Iraq is not a coastal area, the p9opulation is used to consuming fish, however, freshwater fish is more common than saltwater fish. Masgouf is one of the most popular dishes. Biryani although influenced by the Indian cuisine, is much milder with a different mixture of spices and a wider variety of vegetables including potatoes,u peas, carrots and onions among others. Dolma is also one of the popular dishes. The Iraqi cuisine is famous for its extremely tender kaqbab as well as its tikka. A wide verity of spices pickles and Amba年人时 are alsso extensively used.8人j

  

  

  Sport

  Main article: Sport in Iraqxi

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  Main article: List of I北美文学网raq-related topicsB0

  [hide]v • d • e Major topics in mIraq lho

   D

  Geography Governorates • Districts • Notable Places • Syrian Desert • Zagros Mountains • Euphrates • Tigris • Umm Qasr • Al-Faw Peninsula • Shatt al-Arab • Al-Jazira • Lake Hammar j7

   g

  History Ancient Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent) • Sumer z• Akkadian Emipre • Babylonia and Assyria • Chaldea n• Nebuchadrezzar II • Persian Empire • Islamic conquest of Persia and Arab Empire • Ottoman Empire 北美枫• British Mandate • Saddam Hussein • Persian Gulf War • Invasion of Kuwait • Sanctions • 2003 invasion 我ed• Post Invasion (Insurgen 一人cy)

   t

  Government Constitution • Legislative branch (Speaker) k• Executive branch (President · Council of Ministers B· Prime Mi r大nister) • Judiciary • Government since 2006 们年h花

   v

  Politics Political Parties • Minority Politics • Elections • Security Forces (Army · Navy · Air Force · Police) • Foreign relations • Human Rights • Foreign aid • War Conflicts • Weapons of mass destruction • Democracy • Flag 日小

  

  Economy Iraqi Dinar • Stock Exchange • Central Bank • Oil • Communications • Transportation • Reconstruction A

   yf

  Society Demographics • Religion (Islam · Christianity · Judaism · Tribes) • Language (Arabic · Kurdish · Turkish · Assyrian) • Education • Health • Diaspora • Postage stamps • Sports • Music • Cuisine • Gay rights • Mass graves 0

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  Portal d个 为2

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   Iraq War Portal r

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  Referencesu g

  ^ Declaration of Principles for a Long-Term Relationship of Cooperation and Friendship Between the Republic of Iraq and the United States of America. j

  ^ Top 10 Battles for the Cont年9prol of Iraq 我hd年了l

  ^ Foreign Policy Magazine: The Failed States Index 2007. n时D

  ^ R北美文学网euters: Iraq world's No. 2 failed state. 0

  ^ Munaf v. Geren, 06-1666, pg. 5 of Syllabus it

  ^ Online Etymology Dictionary 生生

  ^ W. Eilers (1983), "Iran and Mesopotamia" in E. Yarshate3们他r, The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 有j

  ^ US Department of Energy Information.

  ^ The annihilation of Iraq.

  ^ Iraq. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.

  ^ Tripp, Charles:A History of Iraq,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000 o

  ^ Black, George [July 1993]. Genocide in Iraq : the Anfal campaign against the Kurds / Western Asia Watch.. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1-56432-108-8. Retrieved on 2007-02-10.

  ^ Hiltermann, Joost R. [February 1994]. Bureaucracy of repression : the Iraqi government in its own words / Western Asia Watch.. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1564321274. Retrieved on 2007-02-10. 我月

  ^ "Charges against Saddam dropped as genocide trial resumes", AFP, 2007 Ac

  ^ Hay Brown jr, Matthew, (October 23, 2000), "Iraqi Sanct2ions: Without Medicine And Supplies, k和The Children Die", Common Dreams Ne 来yws Centre, Access 生全ed 1n7 September 2006 了5A北美文学网

  ^ http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html The President's State of Uni北美文学网on Address, January 29, k如2002,Washington, D.C. 北美文学网

  ^ Borger, Julian (2004-10-07). There were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. guardian.co.uk. Guardian Media Group. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 花v

  ^ {{ http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/7/22/112615.shtml http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/libra 们try/news/2004/07/mil-040702-rferl02.htm http://www.usatoday.lcom/news/world/iraq/2004-07-01-poland-iraq-sarin_x.htm http全mu://www.swissinfo.org/eng/index.html?siteSect=143 一人&sid=5055996 http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?BRD=1078&dept_i北美文学网d=1t不生51021&newsid=12185667&PAG=461&2rfi=9 }} l2

  ^ CPA Website. t 来说

  ^ Iraq bodycount webpage.

  ^ "Saddam death 'ends dark chapter'", BBC News, 2006-12-30. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 4

  ^ "Saddam Hussein's Two Co-Defendants Hanged in Iraq", Bloomberg L.P., 2007-01-15. Retrieved on 2007-08-18.

  ^ Ramadan 北美文学网hanging 北美文学网

  ^ http://www.miamiherald.com/851/story/214807.html s不

  ^ "Iraqi PM sees decline in Baghdad attacks" (HTML), MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-11-25. (English) hq

  ^ "U.N. reports cholera outbreak in northern Iraq" (人天pHTML), CNN. Retrieved on 2007-08-30. (English) v

  ^ Patrick Cockburn: “US issues threat to Iraq’s $50bnm foreign reserves in military deal”, The Independent, June 6, 2008.

  ^ "Warnings of Iraq refugee crisis", BBC News, 2007-01-22. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 花生

  ^ Iraq Situatnq中ion Map (PDF).

  ^ A displacement crisis (30 March 2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-18. x年7月

  ^ 40% of middle class believed to have fled crumbling nation. gr

  ^ Doors closing on fleeing Iraqis. 为小wl

  ^ Plight of Iraqi refugees worsens as Syria, Jordan impo年和wse restrictioqns. 说s9

  ^ Iraqi refugees start to head home (PDF). 8一

  ^ Wagner, Thomas, (October 25, 2005), "Iraq's Constitution Adopted by Voters", ABC News, Accessed 17 September 2006 不y 日2

  ^ GWYNNE DYER (2008-06-11). Washington and Baghdad: the tzreaty that isn't (HTML) 6风(English).山4j The Japan Times Online 1. The Japan Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-11. e 北美文学网k

  ^ Bohse3年6m, Guido & Somerville, Glen, (November 20, 2004), "G7, Paris Clu 一要b Agree on Iraq Debt Relief", Reuters, Accessed 17北美文学网 Septem dyber 2006 r

  ^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. ds

  ^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01.

  ^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. r北美文学网

  ^ BBC News - Iraq's 'devastated' Marsh Arabs (3 March 2003). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. s月

  ^ Field Listing - Religions. The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved on 2008-03-17. wv

  ^ "Iraqis By the Numbers" by FARUQ ZIADA [1] 7j

  ^ Map on the distribution of religious groups, 生天from the Baker--Hamilton Committee report, page 北美文学网102 f人了

  ^ U.N.: 100,000 Iraq refugees flee monthly. Alexander G. Higgins, Boston Globe, November 3, 2006 4

  ^ Ann McFeatters: Iraq refugees find no refuge in Almerica. Seattle Post-InteDllig5enc北美文学网er May 25, 2007
 

阿拉伯文学与西方(现代)  hepingdao  2008-07-02 13:46

  文学古今中外一切文化、文学都是沿着传承-借鉴-创新这条轨迹向前发展的。近现代阿拉伯文化、文学的复兴也不例外。 为在不3

  随着对西方文学作品的翻译,西方的文学形m式和各种流派被引进了阿拉伯。后殖民主义时期的阿拉伯文学,无论在艺术形式上,还是思想内容上,都呈现出多元多彩、五光十j色、百花齐放的局面。埃及著名文学家、1988 r这年诺贝尔文学奖得主纳吉布·迈哈福兹( ن8mCيب محفوظ1911-2006)的创作道路,较集中地l地体现了阿拉伯现代小说发展的历程。当代 yd的阿拉伯作家一方面借鉴西方的现代主义、后现代主义的表现手法,另一方面,也在民族的文化遗产中挖掘、探年了人索,以开5辟自的道路。r

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  阿拉伯文学与西方(现代) dz北美枫8C

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  自1258年阿拉伯阿拔斯王朝灭亡于蒙古旭烈兀之手后,由于异族的统治及其它原因,近古时期的阿拉伯文学一直处于衰滞状态。j北美文学网

  

  1798年,法国拿破仑入侵埃及为阿拉伯近现代历史揭开了序幕。年py

  k

  西方的侵入给阿拉伯世界带来了西方资产阶级文化,在客观上引起了近现代已占上风的西方资产阶级文化与已处于下风的阿拉伯-伊斯兰文化的再次撞击。面对西方的挑战,阿拉伯一些有胆识的政治家、思想家意识到必须进行改革复兴。走在这场复兴运动前列的是埃及和黎巴嫩。ry

  k

  法军侵埃(1798-1801)的同时,拿破仑还带去北美文学网了一批学者。他们在埃及成立学会,对埃及各方面进行研究;并在埃及建立实验室、图北美枫5在书馆、印刷厂等,使埃及人民首次接触到西方文明,注意到西方科学的进步。1805年,阿尔巴尼亚籍军官穆罕默德·阿里( محمد عل山93ي)利用人民的力量夺取政权,成为埃及的总s督(1805-1849)后,力图把埃及变成一个独立北美文学网的强国。他竭力主张学习西方科学技术,一方面向西方派了大量留学生,另一方面也创办了一些军事、技术学校,聘请了不少西方学者在埃及执教讲学,从而为埃及接触与传 北美枫8播西方文化打通了渠道。伊斯梅尔( إسماnيل باشا 1863-1879在位)上台后,进一步向西方开放;同时许多在黎巴嫩、叙利亚遭受 一l迫害的知识分子纷纷逃至埃及定北美文学网居,从而使埃及在近现代的复兴运动中处于领先地位。北美文学网t

   为l

  黎巴嫩接触西方文化可以追溯得更早一些。先后曾一度使黎巴嫩取得半独立于奥斯曼政府地位的法赫鲁丁二世( فخر الدين الثاني1572-1635)和巴希尔二世( بشير الثاني1768-1850)两位埃米尔曾提倡、鼓励与西方接触,更多地接受西方教育、西方文明的影响,企图以此促进这一地区的现代化。而西方则利用这一地区很多居民是基督教徒这一特点,通过教会,积极进行文化渗透。早自16世纪末,西方人就在罗马、巴黎等欧洲大城市建有专为东方人,特别是为黎巴嫩人培养教士的学校。0

  C

  阿拉伯许多有识之士曾指出,当时正处于长期停滞、落后的阿拉伯世界,"它本身不具有赖以复兴的条件,必须借助外来的火光照亮思想,并把它提高到世界思想和文化发展的水平。像在欧洲的黑暗时期东方曾把它照亮一样,东方在自己的衰沉时期也要借助欧洲,以建造自己的复兴基础。东西方交流所产生的火光将在阿拉伯世界大放光明,将照亮通向思想、文化、文学广泛进步的智慧之路......东西方交流是复兴的最重要和最有影响的前提。它在黎巴嫩和埃及表现得比其他阿拉伯国家更为突出,更有影响,更普遍有效。"[i]人Dyf

  i

  文学古今中外一切文化、文学都是沿着传承-借鉴-创新这条轨迹向前发展的。近现代阿拉伯文化、文学的复兴也不例外。运动的先声是始于19世纪初的翻译运动。至19世纪末、20世纪初,西方莎士比亚、 莫里哀、拉辛的一些剧本,大仲马的《三剑客》、雨果的《悲惨世界》等小说都陆续被译成阿拉伯文。其间,埃及作家穆斯塔法.曼法鲁蒂( مصطفى المنفلوطي 1876-1924)等人还另辟蹊径:虽不懂外文,却请别人初译,自己再用优美、典雅的阿拉伯文改写了许多西方名著,颇似我国的近代著名文学家、翻译家林纾(1852-1924)。 Ao

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  随着对西方文学作品的翻译,西方的文学形式和各种流派被引进了阿拉伯。c

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  谈起西方文学对阿拉伯文学的影响,还应看到这样一些事实:至第一次世界大战前后,西方殖民主义者已基本完成了对整个阿拉伯世界瓜分。他们划分了各自的势力范围,使阿拉伯各国或地区沦为他们的殖民地、半殖民地:埃及、苏丹、伊拉克、约旦、巴勒斯坦、也门和海湾地区属于英国的势力范围;属于法国势力范围的殖民地是马格里布(西北非)地区的阿尔及利亚、摩洛哥、突尼斯,西亚的黎巴嫩、叙利亚是其委任统治地;利比亚则是意大利侵占的殖民地。这些国家在第二次世界大战后,乃至20世纪六、七十年代才取得独立。既然当时为西方的殖民地或半殖民地,其文学受西方文学的影响是很自然的事。其主要表现为对新的文学形式和文学流派的引进。不过在殖民主义时期,主要是接受了西方传统的古典主义、浪漫主义和现实主义的影响。后殖民主义时期,即第二次世界大战后,特别是20世纪六、七十年代后,主要是受西方的现代主义和后现代主义影响。9

  m

  阿拉伯是一个诗歌的民族。诗歌被认为是阿拉伯人的史册与文献,在古代阿拉伯文学中一直处于中心位置。阿拉伯现代诗歌的发展大体经过三个阶段:y

   ss

  始于19世纪末的复兴派,亦称传统派、新古典主义派。这一流派的主要特点是:在表现形式上严格地遵循古典诗歌的格律,讲究词语典雅--语言美,音韵和谐--音乐美。而在内容上,则极力反映时代脉搏、政治风云、社会情态和民间疾苦。其先驱是埃及的巴鲁迪( محمود سامي البارودي1838-1904)、黎巴嫩的纳绥夫·雅齐吉( ناصيف اليازجي 1800-1871)等;代表诗人有埃及的"诗王"绍基( أحمد شوقي 1868-1932)、"尼罗河诗人"、哈菲兹·易卜拉欣( حافظ إبراهيم 1871-1932),伊拉克的鲁萨菲( معروف الرصافي 1875-1945)、宰哈维( جميل صدقي الزهاوي 1863-1936)、贾瓦希里( محمد مهدي الجواهري1900-1998),黎巴嫩 的穆特朗( خليل المطران 1872-1949),叙利亚的白戴维·杰拜勒( بدوي الجبل 1900-1981)等。

  人9天3zx

  随着时代的发展,政治风云、社会情态、思想意识的变化,随着阿拉伯诗人大量接触西方特别是英法浪漫派诗人的作品并深受其影响,一些诗人认为新古典派诗人所遵循的诗歌传统模式,无论思想内容还是所用语言、表现形式,对创作都是一种束缚。他们强调创作自由,强调诗歌创作的主观性。他们由于对现实的强烈不满,把精神生活看作是同鄙俗的物质实践活动相对抗的唯一崇高价值,因而主张在反映客观现实方面应侧重从主观内心世界出发,描述对外界和大自然景物的内心反应和感受;抒发对理想世界的热烈追求;认为诗歌是强烈情感的自然流露,诗歌是想象和激情的语言。在表现形式上,他们也尝试打破传统格律,加以创新,颇似闻一多提倡的新格律诗。于是,在阿拉伯诗坛出现了浪漫主义-创新派。早在20世纪初叶,在黎巴嫩籍旅居埃及被称之为"两国诗人"的穆特朗作品中,浪漫主义倾向已初露端倪;此后在20世纪20、30年代先后在埃及出现的"笛旺诗社"和"阿波罗诗社",以及在北美("笔会")、南美("安达卢西亚社")产生的"旅美派",更使浪漫主义在阿拉伯现代诗坛形成一股强大的势力。代表诗人有埃及的阿卡德( عباس محمود العقاد 1889-1964)、易卜拉欣·纳吉( إبراهيم ناجي 1898-1953)、阿里·迈哈穆德·塔哈( علي محمود طه 1902-1949),突尼斯的沙比( أبو القاسم الشابي 1909-1934),叙利亚的欧麦尔·艾布·雷沙( عمر أبو الريشة 1910-1990),黎巴嫩本土的伊勒亚斯·艾布·舍伯凯( إلياس أبو شبكة 1903-1947),旅美的纪伯伦( جبران خليل جبران 1883-1931)、艾布·马迪( إيليا أبو ماضي1889-1957)、赖希德·赛里姆·胡利( رشيد سليم الخوري 1887-1954),苏丹的提加尼·尤素福·白希尔( التيجاني يوسف بشير 1912 - 1937)等。hc

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  第二次世界大战后,整个世界形势起了很大变化,阿拉伯世界、亚、非、拉美地区民族解放运动风起云涌;阿拉伯人民经历了种种重大的变革和考验。这一切使诗人无法把自2己关在象牙塔里去咬文嚼字、雕词凿句,或x吟风弄月,自我陶醉。年轻一代诗人反对"为 北美枫艺术而艺术",而对民族、历史、社会负有一5种使命感,去投入战斗,干预生活。同时,他们在很大程度上又受西方现当代诗潮的影了z全响,希望进一步打破旧体诗格律传统的束缚 k何,以便更充分、更自由地表达个人的思想感 kr情,反映现实,表现新的意境。于是,在浪山h天漫-创新派和古典"彩诗"的基础上,在20世纪40何年们年代末,首先在伊拉克,新诗--"自由体诗"便应运而生。这种诗歌,不再以联句为单位,5讲究格式规整;而是每行长短不一,参差不齐,讲究音步,韵律宽松,富于变化,节奏s明快。内容以反映现实为主,自由,奔放,全y9富有战斗性,内涵丰富而深邃,具有强烈的c个性。但随着西方现代主义与后现代主义诗了5风潮的影响和国内政治、社会形势的发展变化n,新诗的内容和形式也有所发展,有所变化。特别是20世纪60年代开始阿拉伯一些国家当局对思想意识的控制和1967年对以战争失败,使一些有左倾思想的诗人更趋向于用象征、 北美枫i隐晦、朦胧乃至荒诞的手法,在诗q中表达自己的思想感情,曲折地反映现实。新诗--"自由体诗"代表诗人有伊拉克的娜齐克了oc·梅拉伊卡( نازك الملاBكة 1923-2007)、沙基尔·赛亚卜( بدر شاك北美文学网ر السياب 1926-1964)、白雅帖( عبد الوهاب البياتي1926-1999),埃及的阿卜杜·萨g尔( صلاح عبد الصبور 1931-1981)、艾哈l迈德·希贾齐( أحمد عبد المعطي حجازي1935-),叙利亚的尼扎尔·格巴尼( 年国为نزار قباني1923-1998),黎巴嫩的艾杜尼斯( أدونيس 1930-)、尤素福·哈勒( يوسف 6风الخال 1916-1987),也门的阿卜杜·阿齐兹·里赫( zعبد العزيز المقالح1939-)等。f

   1是j

  阿拉伯古代文学史上,叙事文学虽然也是其辉煌的篇章。但现代形式的新小说却是20世纪初从西方文学引进的。最初是前面所说的翻译小说,然后是历史小说,其中成绩最突出的是旅居埃及的黎巴嫩籍作家杰尔吉·宰丹( جرجي زيداني1861-1914),他受英国作家司各特的影响,善写历史小说。他自30岁至死,几乎一年写一部,共写有22部历史小说,内容多讲述相爱的男女主人公在一定的历史环境中的种种遭遇,既有史实,又有故事,通俗有趣,风靡一时。但若从文学角度看,无论是人物刻画,还是情节安排,都显得有些浅薄。叙利亚的迈阿鲁夫·爱纳乌特( معروف الأرناؤوط1892-1948)企图用小说的形式写成一部伊斯兰史诗式的巨著,通过已写或拟写的七、八十个著名的历史人物及其事迹,为阿拉伯人民的祖先歌功颂德,唤醒阿拉伯人民的民族意识,振奋精神,进行斗争。但他的历史小说多为事件的堆砌,没有一条情节主线贯穿于其中,显得庞杂。 sd0

  

  还有些作家试图利用阿拉伯民族传统模式创作小说(颇似我国近代的章回体小说)。其中具有相当影响的是埃及的穆罕默德·穆维利希( محمد المويلحي 1868-1930)和他的代表著《伊萨·本·希沙姆叙事录》(1906)。这部作品在内容上是反映了本民族传统的和西方当代的两种文明、两种道德价值观念在相互撞击过程中所表现出的种种差异和矛盾;在艺术形式上则是将西方小说形式同阿拉伯古典的"玛卡梅"形式嫁接起来,是一次大胆而不太成功的尝试。 为q

  我f

  西方的浪漫主义和现实主义被先后引进阿拉伯现代文学。黎巴嫩旅美派主帅纪伯伦的《折断的翅膀》(1911)、埃及穆罕默德·侯赛因·海卡尔( محمد حسين هيكل 1888-1956)的《宰娜布》(1912),被认为是阿拉伯文学史上最早出现的现代模式的中长篇小说。前者旅居美国,后者是留学法国的博士,两部作品都是在国外创作出来的,作品受西方文学的影响是自然的,也是明显的。不过比起诗歌,小说在现代阿拉伯早期的文坛还是处于边缘的另类。穆罕默德·侯赛因·海卡尔在最初发表《宰娜布》时不敢署真名,或羞于用真名,而以《埃及一农夫》的笔名发表,便是证明。D

  0

  现代阿拉伯文学受西方文学的影响来自两方面:一方面,阿拉伯国家作为殖民地或半殖民地,受西方英、法等宗主国文学各种流派的影响,有些作家直接用英文、法文等外文创作,甚至获奖;另一方面,1917年前苏联"十月革命"的成功,推动了阿拉伯世界社会主义运动的发展,阿拉伯各国共产党相继成立,许多左翼作家信奉马克思主义或加入了共产党,在创作中深受苏俄等社会主义现实主义文学理论的影响。如在1951年成立的"叙利亚作家协会",针对"为艺术而艺术",就明确提出"艺术为人民,为人生,为社会服务"的口号。t

  3的h

  如果说现代阿拉伯文学在艺术形式上是借鉴西方文学,深受其影响的话,那么在内容方面,独立前,是以反殖民侵略、反封建礼教,争取民族解放、独立,要求民主、科学为主旋律。独立后,上述题材仍是许多作家在创作中关注的主题,此外,20余个阿拉伯国家,政体不同,经济状况不同,甚至所奉的宗教教派信仰也不尽相同,在斗争、建设的道路上有不同的经历,面临不同的问题。因此,后殖民主义时期的阿拉伯文学,无论在艺术形式上,还是思想内容上,都呈现出多元多彩、五光十色、百花齐放的局面。he北美枫

  r

  埃及著名文学家、1988年诺贝尔文学奖得主纳吉布·迈哈福兹( نجيب محفوظ1911-2006) 北美枫的创作道路,较集中地地体现了阿拉伯现代小说发展的历程。在20世纪在30年代至40年代北美文学网初,他写了大量短篇小说,揭露当时社会的种种黑暗、腐朽、丑恶现象的。其中很多是作家日后创作的中长篇小说或其中某些情节的雏形。曾任埃及文化部长的著名文艺批评2家艾哈迈德·海卡尔( أحمد هيكل)曾对这f们w些小说给予过很高的评价:"事实上,由于这些抨击帕夏、贝克和王公大臣的小说,纳吉布·迈哈福兹被认为是对当时旧时代的腐败表 们生示愤怒谴责的革命文学先驱之一;同时,由我a的于他在小说中体现了阶级社会的弊端,表明x了对穷人和劳动人民的同情,及对封建主和资本家的抨击,他被认为是在埃及文学中最早为社会主义现实主义铺路的人之一。"他的中长篇小说发轫之作是三部以法老时代的埃 们大及为题材的历史小说:《命运的戏弄》(1939北美文学网)、《拉杜嬖姒》(1943)、《忒拜之战》(1e944)。这一阶段被认为是纳吉布·迈哈福兹的北美枫说生浪漫主义历史小说阶段。作家实际上是用春e秋笔法借古讽今地对当时英国殖民主义和土耳其王室这些外来的侵略者及其统治进行抨击,并表达了人民追求自由、独立、民主、幸福的理想。此后,作家进入了一个新的文g学创作阶段:现实主义社会小说的阶段。他先后发表了《新开罗》(1945)、《汗·哈里北美枫中9里市场》(1947)、《梅达格胡同》(1947)、《始与终》(1949)和著名的《宫间街》、《e思宫街》、《甘露街》三部曲(1956、1957)等。这些小说主要反映了半封建、半殖民地的开罗中产阶级即小资产阶级的生活。作家往c往通过一个街区、一个家庭和一个人的悲惨遭遇,表现当时整整一代人的悲剧;对当时社会的种种弊病及其制造者进行了无情的揭j露和批判。1959年发表的《我们街区的孩子们》标志着作家又进入了一个新的阶段。作家本人将这一阶段称之为"新现实主义"阶段,以8在以别于传统的现实主义,并说明两者的区别是" ya传统的现实主义的基础是生活:要描述生活,说明生活的进程,从中找出其方向和可能包含的使命:故事从头到尾都要倚赖生活、 k3活生生的人及其详尽的活动场景。至于新l现实主义,其写作的动机则是某些思想和感受,面向现实,使其成为表达这些思想和感受的手段。我完全是用一种现实的外表形式g表达内容的。"在这一阶段中,作家借鉴了许 北美枫9多西方现代主义、后现代主义的表现手法,如内心独白、联想、意识流、时空交错、怪诞的卡夫卡式的故事、复调多声部的叙事形式等。《我们街区的孩子们》是一部现代寓言小说,也是纳吉布·迈哈福兹的重要代表作 北美枫B之一。小说以象征主义的手法,以一个街区的故事,寓意整个人类社会历史的演进过程,反映了以摩西、耶稣、穆罕默德为代表的先知时代直至此后的科学时代,人类为追求幸福、实现理想而坚持不断的努力;表现出在此过程中善与恶、光明与黑暗、知识与愚昧的斗争。作者借书中人之口,指出象征创世主的老祖宗杰巴拉维早就与世隔绝,不管l他的子孙--人间事了;又写出象征科学的阿拉法特闯进了杰巴拉维--创世主隐居的所在,造16日成了这位老祖宗的死亡。这一切无疑激怒了北美文学网宗教界的头面人物,于是《我们街区的孩子 k了们》在埃及成为禁书,1969年才得以在黎巴嫩B贝鲁特出版。这一阶段其它主要作品还有《盗贼与狗》(1961)、《鹌鹑与秋天》(1963) 一s、《道路》(1964)、《乞丐》(1965)、《尼罗河上的絮语》(1966)、《镜子》(1971)、 Co《雨中的爱情》(1973)、《卡尔纳克咖啡馆北美文学网》(1974)、《我们街区的故事》、《深夜》2、《尊敬的先生》(1975)、《平民史诗》(1977)、《爱的时代》(1980)、《千夜之夜》s(1982)、《王座前》、《伊本·法图玛游记何pa》(1983)《生活在真理之中》(1985)、《日夜谈》(1986)等等。纳吉布·迈哈福兹具有鲜明的立场和观点,是一个负有历史使命感的作家,是一位思想家,社会批评家。他追求公正、合理、幸福美好的社会,尽情地揭北美文学网露、批判、鞭挞人世间一切暴虐、不义、邪恶、黑暗的势力。但由于政治和社会现实的复杂性,他往往利用不同的表现手法、不同的艺术表现形式表达自己的种种见解。作家B在其著名的三部曲中,曾借年轻的女革命者苏珊之口说过这样一句意味深长的话:"写文章,清楚、明白、直截了当,因此是危险的9,至于小说则有数不清的花招,这是一门富有策略的艺术。"这句话可以看作是了解这位作家每部作品深层中的政治内涵和哲理寓意e的钥匙。在艺术手法方面,由于作家博揽群何DC书、学贯东西,并随时代前进,具有变革创新意识,因而我们可以看到,他既继承发扬f这l了埃及、阿拉伯民族古典文学传统的各种表现手法,也借 Cj鉴了西方的浪漫主义、自然主义、现实主义 de,以及包括诸如表现主义、结构主义、意识流、荒诞派,乃至拉美年月l的魔幻现实主义在内的各种表现手法。正如作家自己所说:"通过这些作品,我可以说, 来i自己是烩诸家技巧于一鼎的。我不出于一个北美文学网作家的门下,也不只用一种技巧。"借鉴、继j承、创新,贯穿于纳吉布·迈哈福兹的整个文 们要学创作历程中。作家晚年为创作民族化的小B说所作的努力是值得称道的。正是这样,纳吉布·迈哈福兹的作品是现实主义、现代主义及本民族传统文学融会在一起,共同孕育的产物。因此,它既有民族性,又有世界性,2最能体现现当代文学的风 Co采。北美文学网

   日风

  当代的阿拉伯作家一方面借鉴西方的现代主义、后现代主义的表现手法,另一方面,也在民族的文化遗产中挖掘、探索,以开辟自己的道路。这就是阿拉伯文学的现状。 v

  人在0

  (仲跻昆)北美文学网


呼吁  罂粟子  2009-03-26 15:43

  中国政府共产党畜牲:北美文学网主义,愚民生活.


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