:::::::::: 小說之家埃及 ::::::::::

就算我是盗墓者吧，而我把挖掘出来的所有财宝————

————都奉献给您!

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埃及

强烈要求阅读埃及诗人

　　古埃及(Ancient Egypt)，一般指公元前32世纪左右至公元前343年波斯灭亡埃及这段时间内尼罗河下游地区的埃及文明。古埃及是典型的水力帝国。D

　　古埃及北临地中海，南至尼罗河第一瀑布与努比亚为邻，东临红海，西与利比亚毗连。从努比亚边界到孟斐斯，称上埃及，从孟斐斯到地中海称下埃及。这里最早的居民是含人和闪人。

　　古埃及典型的的铜石并用文化为上埃及的巴达里文化和涅伽达文化1及涅伽达文化2。

　　古埃及历史年表 e

　　第一王朝：公元前3200年～2850年。从美尼斯到卡，共有八位法老。x

　　第二王朝：公元前2850～2686年。从霍特普司克摩伊(Hotepseknemoui)到卡斯克摩，共有六位法老。i

　　古王国或孟斐斯帝国(公元前2686～2181年)风

　　第三王朝：公元前2686～2613年。从纳特里克特—吉塞(Neteriknet-Djeser)到胡尼(Houni)，共有五位国王。焦瑟统治时代是权力和胜利的开始，此时出现了以沙卡拉的阶梯金字塔建筑群为代表的恢宏壮观的石头建筑。该建筑群的设计师、作家兼学者的伊姆荷泰普成为史书上首批出现的伟人之一。这一时代是强而有力的中央集权君主制得以发展的时期，君主坐于孟斐斯，分派各省总督统治全国。f

　　第四王朝：公元前2613～2494年。从斯内夫卢(Snefrou)到斯克普斯卡夫(Skepseskaf)，共有六或七位法老。从金字塔的雄伟程度来判断，斯奈夫鲁、胡夫和哈尔夫的统治时期为这个时代的顶峰。在达夏尔，梅顿和基萨修筑的金字塔显示出王朝的治国有方、经济繁荣。第五王朝：公元前2494～2345年。从乌斯卡夫(Ouser)到乌纳斯(Ounas)，共有九位法老。最著名的是萨胡蕾(Sahoure)和吉德卡雷—伊塞西(Djedkare-Isesi)。我大

　　在第五王朝，“太阳崇拜意识”迅速发展，在沙卡拉的乌尼斯金字塔墙上刻著著名的金字塔铭文。第六王朝：公元前2345～2181年。从泰蒂(Teti)一世到女王尼托克里斯(Nitocris)，共七位国王包括佩比一世和活了上百岁的佩比(Pepi)二世。

　　虽然第六王朝文治武攻显赫一时，曾组织过远至非洲南端的军商远征，但一些省督不断膨胀的全历史中央集权的孟斐斯备受威胁，而引发了内乱。

　　第一过渡时期(公元前2181～1991年)9

　　第七王朝：只统治了七十天。我以

　　第八王朝：公元前2181～2130年。共有八到二十七位法老，但名字无文献可查。Cwo

　　第九王朝到第十王朝：北方公元前2130～2040年。共有六位法老，有三位名叫凯蒂。 g

　　第十一王朝：南方公元前2130～2040年。共有三位法老。

　　蒙图荷泰普二世在公元前2050年统一全国，从此第十一王朝的底比斯君主统治了整个埃及。这虽然使他们的故乡底比斯城地位越来越重要，但仍然不足以取代孟斐斯。底比斯的统治者适时尚须来回旅行，并在十二王朝时在通往法尤姆的入口处修建了行宫，和诸如伊蒂—塔维的小城。王朝在不放弃底比斯的同时向北转移权力中心，显示出强而有力的中央集权政府逐渐恢复。国

　　中王国或底比斯第一帝国(公元前1991～1786年) A不国

　　第十一王朝末期：公元前2060～2000年。三位蒙图霍特普法老，第一位在公元前约2040年统一埃及。第十二王朝：公元前2000～1786年。七位法老名阿门埃玛特(Amenhemat)或塞索斯特里斯，最后一位统治者是女王塞贝克内菲卢雷(Sebekneferoure)。D天

　　如同世界上其他国家一样，稳定总是和动乱是互相交替。各省分权势力和其他历史上至今仍然不明的势力，毁灭了从第十二王朝传续下来的底比斯政权，埃及分裂成许多的诸侯国。时f

　　第二过渡时期(公元前1786～1567年)

　　第十三到第十四王朝：公元前1786～1674年。约有四十位法老，其中有几位名叫塞贝霍特普。一些法老同时在法老的北部、中部、南部统治。从公元前1730年开始，这些国王只不过是西克索法老的封臣。

　　第十五到第十六王朝：公元前1674～1567年。第十六王朝被称为“小西索克”王朝，只存于三角洲东部。“大西索克”王朝有五位法老，包括一位基安(Khyan)和两位阿拉比(Apopi)。ihp

　　第十七王朝：公元前1674～1567年。十位法老统治底比斯及周围地区。他们是西索克的封臣。最后三位法老塔阿(Taa)一世、二世和卡莫西斯(Kamosis)，开始和北方的西索克人斗争。 g

　　新王国或底比斯第二王国(公元前1567～1085年) 何

　　第十八王朝：公元前1567～1320年。从阿赫莫西斯(Ahmosis)到霍朗赫布，共有十四位君主，其中有四位图特摩斯，四位阿门诺菲斯。王后阿谢普苏、阿肯纳吞(Akhenaton)和图坦卡蒙，都属于本王朝。 d的

　　第十九王朝：公元前1320～1200年。九位拉美西斯王族法老，包括拉美西斯一世、二世和塞蒂一世、二世。

　　第二十王朝：公元前1200～1085年。十位君主，除了第一位名叫赛特纳克特(Sethnakht)之外，其余都叫拉美西斯。要y

　　第三过渡时期(公元前1085～715年)

　　第二十一王朝：公元前1085～945年。在塔尼斯统治的有斯门代斯(Smendes)，普苏赛奈斯一世和二世。在底比斯统治的有埃里霍斯(Herihor)和皮纳杰姆。D

　　北美枫

　　春D

　　国家

　　以

　　埃及（Egypt）全称阿拉伯埃及共和国。位于非洲东北部，面积100.2万平方千米。人口6587万(2000)，主要为阿拉伯人，信奉伊斯兰教；科普特人约占11.8%，信奉基督教；国名：阿拉伯埃及共和国 (The Arab Republic of Egypt) 一

　　独立日：２月２８日（１９２２年） 9 国

　　国庆日：７月２３日（１９５２年） r

　　国旗：呈长方形，长与宽之比为３∶２。自上而下由红、白、黑三个平行相等的横长方形组成，白色部分中间有国徽图案。红色象征革命，白色象征纯洁和光明前途，黑色象征埃及过去的黑暗岁月。C以

　　国徽：为一只金色的鹰，称萨拉丁雄鹰。金鹰昂首挺立、舒展双翼，象征胜利、勇敢和忠诚，它是埃及人民不畏烈日风暴、在高空自由飞翔的化身。鹰胸前为盾形的红、白、黑三色国旗图案，底部座基饰带上写着“阿拉伯埃及共和国”。e

　　国花：睡莲。7

　　【货币】埃及镑

　　【时差】比格林尼治时间早两小时；比北京时间晚六小时。jD

　　

　　地理wr要

　　来

　　C

　　埃及地跨亚、非两洲，大部分位于非洲东北部。苏伊士运河东的西奈半岛位于亚洲西南角。西连利比亚，南接苏丹，东临红海并与巴勒斯坦接壤，北濒地中海，东南与约旦、沙特阿拉伯相望海岸线长2700多千米。全境96%为沙漠。最高峰为凯瑟琳山，海拔2642米。尼罗河纵贯南北，注入地中海，境内长1530千米，两岸形成宽约3～16千米的狭长河谷；入海处形成2.4万平方千米的三角洲，99%的人口聚居在仅为国土面积4%的河谷和三角洲地带。苏伊士运河是连接欧、亚、非三洲的交通要道。主要湖泊有大苦湖、提姆萨赫湖以及阿斯旺高坝形成的非洲最大人工湖——纳赛尔水库(5000平方千米)。全境干燥少雨，尼罗河三角洲和北部沿海地区属亚热带地中海式气候，1月平均气温12℃，7月26℃；年均降水量50～200毫米。其余大部地区属热带沙漠气候，炎热干燥，气温可达40℃。年平均降水量不足50毫米。每年4～5月间常有“五旬风”，夹带沙石，损坏农作物。全境大部属海拔100-700米的低高原。红海沿岸和西奈半岛有丘陵山地，最高峰凯瑟琳山海拔2，637米。气候干热，除地中海沿岸年雨量可达100多毫米外，大部地区终年很少降雨。沙漠与半沙漠广布。西部利比亚沙漠，占全国面积三分之二，大部为流沙，间有哈里杰、锡瓦等绿洲；东部阿拉伯沙漠，多砾漠和裸露岩丘。尼罗河纵贯南北，两岸谷地和三角洲面积达4万多平方公里，构成肥沃绿洲带。矿藏有石油、天然气、磷灰石、铁、锰等。埃及地跨亚非两洲，大部分领土在非洲，只有西奈半岛这一小部分领土在亚洲。在行政上，划分为8个经济区，每区包括一个或几个省，全国共有26个省。埃及地处欧亚非之洲的交通要冲，北部经地中海与欧洲相通，东部经阿里什直通巴勒斯坦。苏伊士运河沟通了大西洋、地中海与印度洋，战略位置和经济意义都十分重要。个

　　埃及的疆土略呈不规则的四方形。东西宽1240千米，南北长1024千米，地形平缓，无甚大山，沙漠面积占全国总面积的96%。 c

　　尼罗河是埃及的生命线，是“埃及的母亲”。它是非洲第一长河，也是世界上最长的河流之一，全长6670余千米。它由发源于乌干达的白尼罗河、发源于埃塞俄比亚高原的青尼罗河，在苏丹首都喀土穆汇合之后流入埃及。从南到北纵贯埃及东部，在埃及境内一段长达1530千米，确是具有舟楫、灌溉之利的重要的水利资源。世界四大文明古国之一的埃及，就是在尼罗河的哺育下，发展了其光辉灿烂的古文化。国

　　根据自然条件的差异，一般把埃及分为4个地区——尼罗河流域及尼罗河三角洲地区、西部沙漠地区、东部沙漠地区、西奈半岛地区。开罗以南是宽约3~16千米的尼罗河绿色长廊，一般称为上埃及。开罗以北称为下埃及。亚历山大和塞得港之间是尼罗河三角洲的冲积平原，面积约2万~4万平方千米。过去，尼罗河每年定期泛滥，给三角洲带来肥沃的冲积物。这里是埃及古文化的发祥地，是全国最重要的经济活动地区，埃及绝大部分人口集中于此，也是世界上人口最密集的地区之一。 g

　　尼罗河以西的西部沙漠又叫利比亚沙漠。它是世界最大的沙漠——撒哈拉沙漠的一部分，约占埃及面积的2/3。它的南部海拔350~500米，大吉勒夫高原海拔1000米左右，中部和北部多洼地，以盖塔拉洼地面积最大。有地下水的洼地形成绿洲。日一春

　　尼罗河以东的东部沙漠，亦称阿拉伯沙漠。它直逼红海之滨，地势由东向西倾斜，红海沿岸多山，海拔1500米左右。以c

　　苏伊士运河以东的西奈半岛，位于亚洲的西南部，面积约6.4万平方千米，占埃及面积的6.38%。地中海沿岸多沙丘，北部低地是蒂赫沙漠，多间歇性河流和干涸的河床。东部为高原，圣卡特琳山海拔2637米，是埃及的最高山峰，相传是摩西受“十诫”的地方。 D g

　　以

　　历史何 8风

　　y

　　

　　具有悠久历史和古老文化。埃及为世界四大文明古国之一。早在公元前3100年，由南方的美尼斯统一了上埃及和下埃及，建立第一个奴隶制王朝。这时埃及文化已趋于成熟，开始使用象形文字，开创法老专制政治。历代王朝陆续建造了一批称为世界奇迹的金字塔以及狮身人面像和大量雕像。公元前七到前一世纪曾先后被亚述、波斯和罗马帝国征服。公元四到七世纪被并入拜占庭帝国。640年阿拉伯人侵入埃及，埃及先后沦为倭马亚和阿拔斯王朝的一个省。后阿拉伯人虽多次更朝换代，但埃及的被统治地位依旧，且接受了伊斯兰教。1517年土耳其人入侵，又沦为奥斯曼帝国的行省。1798年法国拿破仑一世入侵，统治了3年。1882年英军占领埃及，成为英国的殖民地，但名义上仍属奥斯曼帝国。第一次世界大战爆发后，英国宣布埃及为英的“保护国”。由于埃及人民的抵抗，英国于1922年2月28日宣布埃及为独立国家，但保留对国防、外交、少数民族等问题的处置权。ju

　　国

　　1952年7月23日以纳赛尔为首的自由军官组织推翻法鲁克王朝，成立“革命指导委员会”，掌握政权。1953年6月18日宣布成立埃及共和国，M.纳吉布出任第一任总统兼总理。1954年11月纳赛尔取代纳吉布任总统。1956年纳赛尔宣布将苏伊士运河收归国有，并挫败英、法、以联合军事干预。1958年埃及与叙利亚合并为阿拉伯联合共和国，1961年叙利亚发生政变，阿联解体。1970年纳赛尔病逝，萨达特继任总统。1971年9月1日埃及改名为阿拉伯埃及共和国。1981年10月6日萨达特遇刺身死，穆巴拉克当选总统。穆巴拉克对原来的政策逐步调整，强调国内安定，适当开放民主，与反对党对话，同时加强社会治安，镇压制造恐怖活动的极端主义分子；重视发展民族经济，实行开放性政策，积极吸引外资，坚持国营和私营企业并举，注意改善人民生活。在外交方面重点改善同阿拉伯国家的关系。1990年10月12日，议长马哈古卜遇刺身亡，穆巴拉克当日宣布解散议会，并于11月举行议会选举，民族民主党获胜，继续执政。1991年政府提出“把国内稳定放在首位”，有限度开放民主，缓和与反对党的关系，坚决打击制造恐怖活动、暴力事件、暗杀等罪行；经济改革采取稳妥措施，注意照顾社会承受力。何

　　要 s日

　　名胜古迹hm 一

　　h是

　　开罗

　　1、埃及博物馆t

　　埃及博物馆座落在开罗市中心的解放广场，1902年建成开馆，是世界上最著名、规模最大的古埃及文物博物馆。该馆收藏了5000年前古埃及法老时代至公元六世纪的历史文物25万件，其中大多数展品年代超过3000年。博物馆分为二层，展品按年代顺序分别陈列在几十间展室中。该馆中的许多文物，如巨大的法老王石象、纯金制作的宫廷御用珍品，大量的木乃伊、及重242磅的图坦卡蒙纯金面具和棺椁，其做工之精细令人赞叹。

　　 A

　　2、金字塔u g

　　埃及共发现金字塔96座，最大的是开罗郊区吉萨的三座金字塔。金字塔是古埃及国王为自己修建的陵墓。大金字塔是第四王朝第二个国王胡夫的陵墓，建于公元前2690年左右，原高146.5米，因年久风化，顶端剥落10米，现高136.5米；底座每边长230多米，三角面斜度51度，塔底面积5.29万平方米；塔身由230万块石头砌成，每块石头平均重2.5吨。据说，10万人用了20年的时间才得以建成。该金字塔内部的通道对外开放，该通道设计精巧，计算精密，令人赞叹。

　　第二座金字塔是胡夫的儿子哈佛拉国王的陵墓，建于公元前2650年，比前者低3米，但建筑形式更加完美壮观，塔前建有庙宇等附属建筑和著名的的狮身人面像。

　　狮身人面像的面部参照哈佛拉，身体为狮子，高22米，长57米，雕象的一个耳朵就有2米高。整个雕象除狮爪外，全部由一块天然岩石雕成。由于石质疏松，且经历了4000多年的岁月，整个雕象风化严重。另外面部严重破损，有人说是马姆鲁克把它当作靶子练习射击所致，也有人说是18世纪拿破仑入侵埃及时炮击留下的痕迹。

　　第三座金字塔属胡夫的孙子门卡乌拉国王，建于公元前2600年左右。当时正是第四王朝衰落时期，金字塔的建筑也开始衰落。门卡乌拉金字塔的高度突然降低到66米，内部结构纷乱。

　　胡夫金字塔南侧有著名的太阳船博物馆，胡夫的儿子当年用太阳船把胡夫的木乃伊运到金字塔安葬，然后将船拆开埋于地下。该馆是在出土太阳船的原址上修建的。船体为纯木结构，用绳索捆绑而成。国

　　i以

　　3、尼罗河来是

　　尼罗河发源于埃塞俄比亚高原，流经布隆迪、卢旺达、坦桑尼亚、乌干达、肯尼亚、扎伊尔、苏丹和埃及九国，全长6700公里，是非洲第一大河，也是世界上第二条最长的河流，可航行水道长约3000公里。尼罗河有两条上源河流，西源出自布隆迪群山，经非洲最大的湖--维多利亚湖向北流,被称为白尼罗河;东源出自埃塞俄比亚高原的塔纳湖,称为青尼罗河。青、白尼罗河在苏丹的喀土穆汇合，然后流入埃及。不生

　　尼罗河谷和三角洲是埃及文化的摇篮，也是世界文化的发祥地之一。尼罗河在埃及境内长度为1530公里，两岸形成3－16公里宽的河谷，到开罗后分成两条支流，注入地中海。这两条支流冲积形成尼罗河三角洲，面积2.4万平方公里，是埃及人口最稠密、最富饶的地区，人口占全国总数的96％，可耕地占全国耕地面积的三分之二。埃及水源几乎全部来自尼罗河。根据尼罗河流域九国签订的协议，埃及享有河水的份额为每年555亿立方米。

　　开罗的尼罗河上有许多游船，其中仿法老时期船只修造的又名法老船，夜晚泛舟河上，可游览两岸旖旎风光，又可观赏船上著名的东方舞表演。f花a

　　 s全

　　4、萨卡拉金字塔 8不

　　萨卡拉金字塔位于开罗南郊30公里，尼罗河西河谷绿洲边缘外的沙漠上，由多个金字塔组成。其中最著名的是阶梯金字塔，为古埃及第三王朝国王左塞尔的陵墓，约建于公元前2700年。该金字塔是埃及现有金字塔中年代最早的，也是世界上最早用石块修建的陵墓。该金字塔呈6层阶梯塔状，高约60米。在该金字塔附近还分布着许多贵族和大臣陵墓，其中大量的精美浮雕壁画，栩栩如生的描绘了古代埃及人工作和生活的情景。另外，附近的神牛墓也非常有名。要

　　 s中

　　5、古城堡9

　　建于1176年，为阿尤布王朝国王萨拉丁为抵御十字军保护开罗而建。城内建有穆罕默德·阿里清真寺。

　　古城堡内有埃及军事博物馆，展示埃及各历史时期军队的武器、装备、服装、著名战例、工事和城堡的实物、仿制品、模型、图画等。9f

　　穆罕默德·阿里清真寺建于1830年，伊历1246年。整个建筑具有阿拔斯王朝时期的建筑风格。穆罕默德·阿里（1769－1849），阿尔巴尼亚人，1805年成为埃及统治者。C

　　巍峨的阿里清真寺建在开罗以北的山顶上，礼拜殿呈正方形，上有高耸的圆顶为殿中心，四面环有四个半圆殿与正殿相应，还有四根高柱居其中。清真寺西侧正中有一盥洗室，是供穆斯林礼拜时做小净用的。盥洗室四面有四根铁链环绕。清真寺正中盥洗室内，外墙壁是用雪花石瓷砖镶嵌的，所以又被称为雪花石清真寺。 A

　　

　　6、汗.哈利里市场y

　　位于开罗市中心地带（老城区），由分布在几十条小街巷里的几千家个体小店组成，许多店铺可追溯到公元14世纪。市场道路狭窄，街道两旁挤满了小店铺，主要出售金银首饰、铜盘、石雕、皮货及其他埃及传统手工艺品，素以店面古朴、货物齐全深受外国游客喜爱。ju

　　这块地方原是法特梅三朝后裔的墓地，公元14世纪，当时埃及的统治者汗·哈利里以法特梅是叛教者无权建墓地为由下令拆毁墓地，并出资在此建起一个市场，即汗·哈利里市场。现在，它已成为开罗古老文化和东方伊斯兰色彩的一个象征，吸引世界各地的游客。何

　　市场旁边有著名的艾兹哈尔清真寺和侯赛因清真寺。C

　　日su

　　7、法老村

　　位于开罗市内尼罗河的一个小岛上，占地约200亩，是埃及首任驻华大使哈桑·拉贾布博士在发现失传一千年的纸草造纸工艺后于1984年集资修建的。村内种植了大量的纸莎草，有以传统方法制造纸草纸和绘制草纸画的作坊。法老村内建有模拟法老时代的神庙、庄园、农户等建筑，有专人着古装演示当时生产、家居及举行宗教仪式的场景，展现几千年前古埃及人的经济和社会生活画面。村中有著名的法老图坦阿蒙墓的模型和金字塔建筑方法的模型展示，还有照相馆、餐厅和商店。　我们

　　

　　亚历山大

　　位于尼罗河三角洲西部，临地中海，面积100平方公里，人口305万，是埃及和非洲第二大城市，也是埃及和东地中海最大港口。该城建于公元前332年，因希腊马其顿国王亚历山大大帝占领埃及而得名，是古代和中世纪名城，曾是地中海沿海政治、经济、文化和东西方贸易中心，有诸多名胜古迹。亚历山大风景优美，气候宜人，是埃及的“夏都”和避暑胜地，被誉为“地中海新娘”。现有棉纺织、汽车修配、石油提炼和造船等全国三分之一的工业，是埃及棉花贸易大市场，全国80～90％的进出口物资经其西港吞吐。其主要景点有：

　　天

　　1、夏宫日这

　　即蒙塔扎宫，座落在市东部，占地155.4公顷，密林环绕，是一个独具特色的花园。1952年前一直是皇室家族的消夏避暑地，现海滨向游人和垂钓者开放。园内有法鲁克国王行宫（现为埃及国宾馆）。赫迪夫·阿拔斯二世在世纪之交所建的这座土耳其-佛罗伦萨式的建筑物，是王室避暑地。王宫不对公众开放，看其外观一定要注意频频出现的主题字母F。u

　　据说一个报喜人告诉福阿德王，字母F将给他的家庭带来好运，从此他和他的儿子法鲁克给他们的子孙命名都以F开头。1951年法鲁克与娜瑞曼结婚，却没有更改她的名字，1952年1月他们的儿子诞生，他为他取名阿赫迈德·福阿德，字母F被放在第二位，6个月后法鲁克被废黜。为3 dq

　　hs

　　2、卡特巴城堡 j

　　前身为世界七大奇迹之一的亚历山大灯塔。灯塔建于公元前280年，塔高约135米，经数次地震，于1435年完全毁坏。1480年用其石块在原址修筑城堡，以国王卡特巴的名字命名。1966年改为埃及航海博物馆，展出模型、壁画、油画等，介绍自一万年前从草船开始的埃及造船和航海史。与开罗古城堡并称为埃及两大中世纪古城堡。北美文学网日

　　 g

　　3、“自由”号游艇

　　是目前世界上仍能使用的最古老皇家游艇，由英国造船公司1865年修建，艇长411英尺，宽42英尺，排水量3417吨，以燃煤蒸汽机为动力，航速16海里。该艇原为埃及王室私用，1868年曾到欧洲接载欧洲国家元首来参加苏伊士运河国际通航典礼，是第一艘从北面进入苏伊士运河的船只。1952年更名“自由号”，现为埃及海军拥有，埃海军以此展示其舰船维修保养水平。大

　　我ff

　　4、珍宝馆大 s3

　　原为古代法特梅公主住宅，1986年改为穆罕默德·阿里王朝珍宝馆，展出王冠和珠宝首饰等。i

　　

　　5、孔姆地卡 s不

　　在亚历山大城市中心的考古遗址中，发现了一座罗马歌剧院(用于音乐表演的剧院)和一套大型的3世纪罗马浴室。托勒密时代的街道和商店逐步发掘出土，石柱和拱门露出地面。遗址使人认识到古代城市所覆盖的范围--若全部发掘，现代城市只好拆除了。我3

　　地址：入口在干胡里亚大广场南端，火车站对面，萨阿德宰格鲁勒广场东南1公里。　 v

　　u

　　苏伊士运河日国w自

　　位于埃及东北部，扼欧、亚、非三洲交通要冲，沟通红海和地中海、大西洋和印度洋，具有重要战略意义和经济意义。 1859－1869年由法国人投资开挖，埃及有10万民工因此丧生。后英国收买了运河公司40％的股票，英法共同掌握运河经营权，掠走巨额收益。1956年，埃纳赛尔总统宣布运河国有化，随即爆发了英、法、以三国侵埃战争。1967－1975年因阿以战争，运河封闭停航达8年之久。 1976－1985年，埃政府耗资约20亿美元进行大规模运河扩建工程，使运河的通航能力显著增加。扩建后运河长度为195公里，最大宽度为365米，水深11米以下为160～190米，最大吃水深度16米，能通过15万吨的满载油轮。近年，通过苏伊士运河的船只日平均约60艘，运河年收入近20亿美元。

　　y do

　　巴列夫防线 v

　　1956年中东战争中以色列占领埃及西奈半岛后，于1969年在苏伊士运河东岸沿河建成一条以参谋长巴列夫命名的防线。防线北起弗阿德港，南至苏伊士湾，全长175公里，纵深30－35公里，总面积5000平方公里，耗资2.38亿美元。该防线由三条平行防线组成：第一线为苏伊士运河及河东岸，河堤下埋设了油管，战争期间点燃，可将运河变成一片火海。沿河筑有20米厚的沙堤，堤后筑有30多个前沿支撑点，支撑点前为铁丝网和地雷区。第二、三线分距运河十几、二十公里，筑有11个核心堡。核心堡一般为半地下的多层建筑，以钢筋水泥作骨架，顶部由铁轨和装在铁网内的石块砌成，厚4－5米，可经受重磅炮弹和炸弹的直接攻击。核心堡由若干个碉堡组成，其中一个为旅指挥所，有的为重炮阵地，有的为弹药和后勤物资仓库，堡内有住房、指挥室、了望哨和射击阵地，储有可供一个月以上的粮食和弹药，碉堡间有堑壕相连，战斗中可互相支援。目前在原巴列夫防线的一些地段，仍保留着当时的一些工事供人们参观游览。特别是在距伊斯梅利亚10公里处的夏杰拉高地，那里曾是巴列夫防线中段前线指挥所，现已改为战争博物馆，供人们参观。北美文学网生

　　i

　　卢克索　

　　位于尼罗河上游，距开罗670公里。古埃及时代称为TABE，是古埃及帝国首都底比斯的一部分。公元前1570年左右，底比斯人赶走了西克索人（HIKUSOS），以此为中心重新统一了埃及，建立了一个更加强大的帝国，领土南接苏丹，北达叙利亚。这个帝国维持了1500多年，在此建造了众多宏伟壮观的神殿及王家陵墓，因此成为古埃及遗迹的宝库，是探访埃及古文明不可不到的地方。主要参观景点有：

　　r

　　1、卢克索神庙 y

　　卢克索神庙是底比斯主神阿蒙的妻子穆特的神庙，规模仅次于卡尔纳克神庙。t

　　它具有令人惊叹的雄伟气势，每一根柱子都代表了法老的威严，置身于其中会使人暂时忘却时间的流逝，神思万千。这里的大部分工程是由第十八朝法老阿蒙诺菲斯三世完成的，后来的拉美西斯二世又增建了大门和庭院，并在门口竖立了六尊他的塑像，现存三尊。庙内原来有两座尖方碑，其中一座被穆罕默德·阿里送给了法国，现在巴黎协和广场。不f

　　花和要

　　2、卡尔纳克神庙何

　　卡尔纳克神庙位于卢克索以北5公里处，是古埃及帝国遗留的最壮观的神庙，因其浩大的规模而闻名世界，仅保存完好的部分占地就达30多公顷。整个建筑群中，包括大小神殿20余座。院内有高44米，宽131米的塔门。大柱厅宽102米，深53米，其中共有134根巨型石柱，气势宏伟，令人震撼。其中最大的12根高23米，周长15米，其上足可容纳50个人站立。晚上有声光表演，用五彩的灯光变幻映照着遗址，配有解说词和音乐，向游客叙述古埃及人民的生活情景。天

　　阿蒙神庙位于卢克索镇北4公里处，是卡尔纳克神庙的主体部分，这里供奉的是底比斯主神——太阳神阿蒙，始建于三千多年前的十七王朝，在此后的一千三百多年不断增修扩建，共有十座巍峨的门楼、三座雄伟的大殿。9

　　阿蒙神庙的石柱大厅（如图）最为著名，内有134根要6个人才能抱的巨柱，每根21米，顶上据说能站百来个人。这些石柱历经三千多年无一倾倒，令不赞叹。庙内的柱壁和墙垣上都刻有精美的浮雕和鲜艳的彩绘，它们记载着古埃及的神话传说和当时人们的日常生活。此外，庙内还有闻名遐迩的方尖碑和法老及后妃们的塑像。c9

　　上

　　3．孟农巨像 w风 d9

　　孟农巨像是矗立在尼罗河西岸和国王谷之间原野上的两座岩石巨像。原来是“阿敏何特普（AMENHOTEP）三世”法老神殿前的雕象，但神殿本身已无踪影。巨象高20米，风化严重，面部已不可辨识。坐像是由新王国时代鼎盛期的阿蒙荷太普三世建造的。坐像身后，原来是他的葬祭殿，但后来的法老拆了这座建筑，并把他做为自己的建筑物的石料。到了托勒密王朝时代，建筑物已经完全被破坏了。人们认为石像是希腊神话中的门农的雕像，就给石像取名为门农像。罗马统治时期的地震使雕像出现了裂缝。每当起风的时候，门农像就像在唱歌一样，十分神奇。后来经过修补之后的门农像，就再也没有唱过歌。天

　　我5

　　4．国王谷日b了

　　在与卢克索城相对的尼罗河西岸的一条山谷中，集中了许多国王和王室成员的陵墓，这就是著名的国王谷。这里埋葬着第17王朝到第20王朝期间的64位法老，其中只有17座开放。最大的一座是第19王朝沙提一世之墓，从入口到最后的墓室，水平距离210米，垂直下降的距离是45米，巨大的岩石洞被挖成地下宫殿，墙壁和天花板布满壁画，装饰华丽，令人难以想象。墓穴入口往往开在半山腰，有细小通道通向墓穴深处，通道两壁的图案和象形文字至今仍十分清晰。

　　这里所有的墓都建于新王国时代。从地面沿台阶向下走，经过前室，就到了安放石棺的墓室。第十八王朝的墓的特点是前室和墓室成直角，而到了十九王朝之后，大多成了直线式的了。国王谷一共发现了６０多处墓地，现在对外开放的墓地仅是其中１０处而已。以h在

　　了

　　拉美西斯三世葬祭殿：是

　　进入凯旋门，正面就是高２２米、上部宽６３米的第１塔门。之后，依次是第１院落，第２院落、列柱室和圣地。

　　这里保存有表现拉美西斯三世应用事迹的浮雕：讨伐敌人、捕杀野牛等。第２院落内有由２４根石柱组成的列柱室，顶部保存有色彩鲜艳的浮雕。个h以

　　拉美西乌姆由入口一直向前，就到了第２院落。其左侧是第２塔门和第１院落；右侧则是列柱室。列柱室入口处并排矗立着４根拉美西斯二世的奥塞里斯柱，前方是拉美西斯二世座像的头部。国王谷对外开放的主要墓室：个

　　1、图特摩斯三世（第十八王朝）：墓内的线条构图十分漂亮。日何

　　2、阿蒙荷太普二世（第十八王朝）：墓室内的２根柱子上绘有奥塞里斯神、阿努比斯神、哈物尔神、荷鲁斯神及阿蒙荷太普二世。国

　　3、图坦卡门（第十八王朝）：法老的木乃伊仍安置于墓室之中。墓室正面的墙上，绘有以奥塞里斯神形象出现的图坦卡门王，以及其继位者阿伊王。天

　　4、荷莱拇赫布王（（第十八王朝）：内有精美壁画；大f

　　5、西蒂二世（第十九王朝）：有木乃伊；h在

　　6、美耐普塔（第十九王朝）：红色花岗岩制成的石棺；上是

　　7、塔乌塞尔托女王（第十九王朝）：西蒂二世之妻；r不山

　　8、拉美西斯一世（第十九王朝）：精美壁画；我u

　　9、拉美西斯三世（第二十王朝）：竖琴演奏者的石像； g

　　10、拉美西斯四世（第二十王朝）：巨大的石棺；w中要

　　11、拉美西斯六世（第二十王朝）：保存良好的壁画； d国 A

　　12、拉美西斯九世（第二十王朝）：小于拉美西斯六世之墓。i

　　

　　5．王后谷 t

　　位于岩石山西方，有集中的王妃墓，墓的规模虽不及国王墓，但内部壁画与国王墓完全不同，表现得自由奔放，反映了当时埃及人的生活习俗。大

　　哈采普苏特是第十八王朝法老图特摩斯一世的女儿，她是除克莉奥佩特拉以外另一位成为法老的女性。

　　哈采普苏特陵庙位于底比斯卫城的最北端。哈采普苏特将自己的陵庙建在峭壁上，以一种优雅的效果显示其统治的长治久安。陵庙分为三层，刻有许多富含深义的浮雕。

　　哈采普苏特是埃及的第一位女王。在其夫图特摩斯二世死后，她作为太后为年纪、幼的图特摩斯三世处理朝政，之后自立为女王。她注重贸易，通过和现在的索马里地区的贸易往来，来获取香料。这些场面也反映在葬祭殿的壁画上。作为女法老，哈采普苏特有强硬的政治手腕，与其养子、后来的图特摩斯三世一直暗中争权。在她去世后，图特摩斯三世采取了报复行动，将陵庙中有她形象的地方都毁掉了。目前陵庙上层在修复之中。hx

　　来 v

　　阿斯旺大

　　阿斯旺（Aswan）是阿斯旺省首府，是埃及街道最清洁、最漂亮的城市。它是埃及与非洲其他国家进行贸易的重镇，也是通往苏丹的门户。它位于东南部尼罗河"第一瀑布"下的东岸，距开罗900千米。历史上为埃及南部通往努比亚的门户，水运和骆驼商队的交汇点。在古埃及时代，曾是与苏丹、埃塞俄比亚进行贸易的中心（科普特语"阿斯旺"即"市场"

　　之意），现为省行政和工商业中心。有钢铁、制铝、化肥、制糖、纺织、制革、水泥等工业，开采铁矿和石料。市内保留大量寺庙和陵墓，如著名的菲莱神庙、阿布辛贝勒神庙等；埃莱方丁博物馆藏有本省历史文物。旅游业较盛，为冬季游览胜地。铁路、公路通开罗、亚历山大等城市，设国际机场。城南有2座水坝，1902年建成的旧坝，距城5．6千米，坝高53米，长2152米，水库蓄水53亿立方米，可发电34．5万千瓦，灌溉农田57万公顷。1970年7月竣工的阿斯旺高坝，有灌溉、防洪、发电、运输的综合效益。每年可提供740亿方稳定可靠的灌溉用水，年发电100亿度，通过2条500千伏高压输电线输往开罗和下埃及，并供应本地。阿斯旺市区不大，但地势险要，滔滔北流的尼罗河水，为它增添了不少景色。这里古代即建有驿站和兵营，也是与南方邻邦贸易的要站。它冬季干燥温暖，是疗养和游览胜地。上9

　　其主要景点：北美枫春

　　1、菲莱神殿

　　菲莱岛（Philae Island）在阿斯旺以南15千米，岛长450米，宽150米。被称为"古埃及国王宝座上的明珠"的埃及古神庙群，修建在阿斯旺城南尼罗河中的小岛菲莱岛上，以辉煌而奇特的建筑、宏伟而生动的石雕及石壁浮雕上的神话故事而闻名。大

　　1902年阿斯旺低坝拦截尼罗河水时，部分被淹没。60年代在菲莱岛南面筑起高坝后，神庙几乎全部被淹没。为了保护这些珍贵文物不受毁损，从1972年开始，埃及政府在神庙四周筑起围堰，将堰中河水抽干，然后将这组庙宇拆成45000多块石块和100多根石雕柱，于1979年8月在离菲莱岛约1千米处的阿吉勒基亚岛上，按照原样重建。1980年3月10日，菲莱神庙在新址上重新正式开放。其中一座最古老的尼克塔尼布二世国王神庙，建于公元4世纪初，最大的一座神庙叫艾齐斯神庙，系托勒密二世费拉底尤斯国王所建。日年

　　前往途径：从市中心乘的士往码头，再由码头乘船到菲莱岛。w9t

　　了y

　　2、古采石场

　　距阿斯旺市区仅两公里的地方有一个古埃及的采石场遗址。采石场沿尼罗河而建，约有６公里长。进入采石场，就进入了花岗石的世界。

　　阿斯旺地区的石质好，颜色多为有小黑点的玛瑙红，石体光滑注泽，即使在现代也是很奢侈的建筑装饰材料。在采石场遗址上，如果细心，可以看到岩壁上有切割出的沟槽。据说古埃及的石料都是从阿斯旺开采，通过水路运输以满足尼罗河两岸的建设需要。 u

　　采石场遗址中有一个著名的景点-未完成的方尖碑。这个巨大的方尖碑横卧在采石场中，长４１米，重达１２６７吨，原本是女王哈特舍普苏特修建的。如果将这个方尖碑竖立起来，它将是全埃及最大的方尖碑。景点设置了梯子，游人可登上碑身，在此冥想方尖碑为什么没有从这里运走的不解之迷。

　　世界上那些著名的方尖碑，在巴黎的协和广场、罗马的圣彼得大教堂广场，都有从埃及劫掠的方尖碑的踪影，它们似乎比埃及本土的方尖碑更经常出现在报纸、杂志的图片上。 D

　　而这个世界上最大的方尖碑却静静地躺在埃及本土，卧在花岗石中，尼罗河畔。与我们在神殿庙宇所见的方尖碑不同，它只完成了切割石材的程序，沿未雕刻与图画，简单中更有古朴的风韵。碑身已有几处形成了裂缝，历史似乎像这巨石一样沉重，让创造历史的人类自身也不堪负荷。 8wD

　　何

　　3、阿布.辛贝勒神殿y

　　阿布辛贝勒神庙（Abu Simbel Temples）是阿斯旺的旅游重点，位于阿斯旺以南280千米处，建于公元前1300-前1233年，是古埃及最伟大的法老拉美西斯二世（ Ramses Ⅱ）所建，也是新帝国的法老王时代最受保护的遗迹。庙高30米，宽36米，纵深60米，门前4座巨型石质拉美西斯坐像，每尊高20米，像旁有其母、妻、子女的小雕像，无不栩栩如生，经过逾3000年的风蚀仍完好无损。 gw这

　　30多年前，当阿斯旺高坝开始动工修建、努比亚古迹面临着永沉湖底的厄运时，它的价值才为世人瞩目。联合国教科文组织向世界各国发出拯救努比亚的呼吁，51个国家作出了反应。从1960年至1980年，专家们进行了40多次大规模的挽救古迹活动：由24个国家的考古学者组成的考察团实地勘察了受湖水威胁的地域；22座庙宇经过测定方位和计算，拆散后化整为零转移到安全地带，然后以其旧貌重建。3000多年前的神庙设计者精确地运用天文、星象、地理学知识，按照要求把神庙设计成为只有在拉美西斯二世的生日（2月21日）和奠基日（10月21日），旭日的霞光金辉才能从神庙大门射入，穿过60米深的庙廊，被撒在神庙尽头的拉美西斯二世石雕巨像的全身上下，而左右的其他巨型石雕都享受不到太阳神赐予的这种厚爱，人们把这一奇观发生的时日称作太阳节。为了保留太阳节的奇观，联合国教科文组织发起募捐，派出当今国际第一流的科学技术人员，运用最先进的科技测算手段，将阿布辛贝勒神庙原样向上移位60米，以确保神庙不会被水淹没。尽管煞费心机，竭尽一切努力，太阳节的时辰还是被错位而挪后了一天。

　　其他大的寺庙分别重建在4个精心挑选的地点：罗马时代的卡拉布舍寺、卡塔西亭和饰有反映非洲黑人生活浮雕的贝瓦里寺现已耸立在高坝附近；达克卡寺、马拉拉加寺和瓦蒂塞布阿寺被集中建在瓦蒂塞布阿；建于公元前15世纪图特摩斯三世和阿美诺菲斯二世执政时的努比亚地区最古老的寺庙马达寺庙群和彭努特小陵墓现移至阿马达；阿布·奥达祭台和普萨墓龛被送到阿布辛贝勒的尼罗河对岸。 A

　　e我o

　　政治北美枫

　　

　　来是

　　1971年9月11日经公民投票通过的永久宪法，规定埃及是“以劳动人民力量联盟为基础的民主和社会主义制度的国家”，经济上“国家所有制、合作社所有制和私人所有制”三种形式并存；总统是国家元首、武装部队最高统帅；总统由人民议会提名，公民投票选出。1980年5月22日经公民投票修改宪法，规定政治制度“建立在多党制基础上”；“总统可多次连选连任”，并增加了“建立协商会议”的条款。人民议会是最高立法机关。议员由普选产生；议长、副议长每年选举1次。主要职能是：提名总统候选人；主持制订和修改宪法；决定国家总政策；批准经济和社会发展计划及国家预算、决算；对政府进行监督。北美枫不2

　　埃及自1952年革命后，曾宣布解散一切政党。1976年萨达特宣布实行多党制。主要政党有6个：①埃及民族民主党，执政党。1978年7月成立。②埃及新华夫脱党，主要反对党。1978年2月成立。③埃及社会主义工党。1978年12月成立。④埃及自由社会主义者工党。1976年1月成立，其前身是自由社会主义者论坛。⑤埃及民族进步统一集团党。前身是1975年成立的民族进步论坛，1976年11月改用现名。⑥乌玛党。1983年7月成立。的花花

　　j

　　经济来

　　

　　大

　　　三分之一以上的职业人口从事农业。耕地面积仅占国土的4.5％，绝大部分为灌溉地。耕作集约，年可二熟或三熟，是非洲单位面积产量最高的国家。主产长绒棉和稻米，产量均居非洲首位，玉米、小麦居非洲前列，还产甘蔗、花生等。非洲重要的石油和磷灰石开采国。炼油工业发达，其他重要工业部门有食品、纺织、化工、钢铁、机械等。尼罗河和沿海盛产鱼类。主要出口原油、油品、棉花等，其中原油独占出口总值的一半左右。主要进口农畜产品、机器设备、车辆、化工产品等。苏伊士运河是最重要的国际通航运河。y不1

　　1952年纳赛尔推翻法鲁克王朝后，对原有较大的工商业、银行、保险业、运输业和进出口贸易实行国有化。1974年萨达特总统宣布实行“经济开放”政策，积极争取外援，大力引进外资，开发自由区和经济特区，发展私营企业，促进国营企业。1974～1982年，经济年增长率达8%。穆巴拉克执政后，继续调整经济政策，进行财政、经济和管理改革，实行“生产性开放政策”。在发展国营企业的同时，继续放宽对私营企业的限制。强调增产节约、提高效率、限制进口、鼓励出口，以自力更生精神克服经济困难，经济有所发展。1991年，由于埃及在海湾战争中持反对伊拉克侵吞科威特的立场，受到美国等西方国家和海湾阿拉伯国家的赞赏，先后有20多个国家和国际金融机构向埃及提供贷款和紧急援助。另外，美国免去埃及所欠军债，科威特、沙特阿拉伯、阿联酋和卡塔尔也取消了埃及所欠债务。同年5月，巴黎俱乐部债权国免除埃及约110亿美元的债务。埃及经济困难得到了缓解。1999年国内生产总值832亿美元。1998年汇率：3.39埃镑兑1美元。

　　埃及资源丰富，初步探明储量：石油60亿桶，天然气3284亿立方米，磷酸盐约12亿吨，铁矿1.82亿吨；此外还有锰、煤、金、锌、铬、银、钼、铜、滑石等。埃及工业以纺织、食品加工等轻工业为主。石油、铜、铁、电力、化肥、水泥、机械等重工业有较大发展，石油工业发展尤为迅速。 ss以

　　农业在埃及国民经济中占有重要的地位。农村人口占全国人口的52%。1998年全国可耕地占全国面积的3.5%。政府极为重视农业发展和扩大耕地面积。主要农作物有棉花、小麦、水稻、高粱、玉米、甘蔗、亚麻、花生、水果、蔬菜等。春C

　　埃及文化灿烂、历史悠久，名胜古迹宏伟丰富，具有发展旅游业的极为优越的条件。主要旅游点有金字塔、狮身人面像、爱资哈尔清真寺、古城堡、希腊罗马博物馆、卡特巴城堡、蒙塔扎宫、卢克索神庙、卡纳克神庙、王陵之谷、阿斯旺水坝等。旅游收入是埃及外汇的主要来源之一。

　　埃及的交通运输十分便利。海陆空运输能力增长较快。铁路全长7000千米。开罗第一条地铁全长42.5千米，第一期工程已于1987年9月竣工通车。公路全长4.8万千米。有海港7个，年吞吐量3050万吨，主港口有亚历山大、塞得港、苏伊士等。有国际机场5个，开罗机场是连结亚、非、欧的重要国际航空港。财政来源除税收外，主要靠石油、侨汇、运河和旅游四大项收入。7

　　埃及同120多个国家和地区有着贸易往来，它的主要贸易对象是美、法、德、意、英、日等国。埃及还较多地接受外国援助。美国是埃及的主要援助国。向埃及提供援助和贷款的国家和组织还有德国、日本、英国、意大利、比利时、荷兰等国及世界银行、国际货币基金组织。1990年海湾战争后，西方和海湾国家减免了埃及的债务共255亿美元。此外，埃及还从海湾国家、美国、西欧各国、日本、加拿大以及韩国获得了10亿多美元赠款或紧急援助。 g

　　在人民生活方面，埃及政府长期实行家庭补贴制度。另外还对大米、面粉、食油、糖和能源等实行物价补贴。大

　　

　　文化教育春

　　是

　　国个

　　埃及实行普及义务小学教育制度。全国有综合性大学13所，包括开罗大学、亚历山大大学、艾因•舍姆斯大学、爱资哈尔大学等，有大学教师3万名；中学25000所，教师75万名。一

　　埃及现有日报7家，期刊70多种，主要为阿拉伯文，有少数为法文和英文。报纸有《金字塔报》、《共和国报》、《晚报》、《消息报》，均为阿拉伯文；较有影响的法文报有《埃及前进报》、《埃及日报》。期刊均为阿拉伯文，有《金字塔经济学家》、《最后一点钟》周刊、《图画》周刊、《鲁兹•尤素福》周刊。

　　中东通讯社为国家所办的惟一通讯社，1956年成立，在伦敦、巴黎、华盛顿、纽约、波恩等地驻有10多名记者。国家广播电台用30多种语言向国内外广播，每天播出约170小时，另有中东广播电台和亚历山大广播电台。埃及电视台为国营，建于1960年。我日wi

　　大

　　对外关系Bt

　　 A

　　

　　　穆巴拉克执政后，奉行独立自主、和平、友好和不结盟政策，主张在相互尊重和不干涉内政的基础上同世界各国发展友好合作关系。主动改善并加强了同阿拉伯国家的关系。1989年5月恢复了阿拉伯联盟成员国资格。7

　　埃及还强调自身的非洲属性，要努力发展同非洲国家的友谊和合作，努力推动南南合作和南北对话。同美国保持“特殊关系”，但不结盟。苏联解体后，承认原苏联各加盟共和国并与其建立外交关系。不断发展同西欧和日本的关系。埃及已同165个国家建立外交关系。

　　埃及同美国的关系有过曲折。1967年六•五战争后，埃及宣布同美国断交。1974年两国复交。1979年埃及同以色列签订和约，美国每年向埃及提供经援、军援。在中东和平问题上，埃及重视美国的作用。

　　埃及同苏联的关系也颇为曲折。穆巴拉克执政后，两国关系逐步改善。苏联解体后，埃及与俄罗斯签订了贸易协定。 g

　　埃及同西欧的关系，自1956年挫败英法联军干预埃及将苏伊士运河收归国有事件后，一直较冷淡。自1973年10月中东战争后，埃及同西欧国家的关系有较大发展。风

　　埃及与叙利亚有特殊关系，1958年2月，两国曾合并为阿拉伯联合共和国，1961年因叙国内发生政变而解体，两国间维持一般外交关系。海湾危机时，两国立场一致。双方过往甚密，在中东问题上协调行动。天

　　埃及与利比亚曾因边界等问题断交。后双方都表示了改善两国关系的愿望，并采取了一些行动。1991年双方又致力于两国一体化进程，双边关系在各个领域里全面迅速发展。

　　埃及同以色列在1948、1956、1967和1973年先后4次爆发战争。1978年萨达特总统同以色列总理贝京、美国总统卡特在美国签署了戴维营协议。1979年3月26日，萨达特和贝京在华盛顿签署了和平条约，宣布结束两国间的战争状态。1980年两国建立大使级外交关系。1989年3月15日，以色列撤离塔巴，埃及收回包括塔巴在内的西奈半岛全部以占领土。花月

　　天w2

　　与中国关系以国

　　

　　国

　　中国和埃及两国有着传统的友谊，2000多年前就有了友好的交往。1956年５月，埃及与中国建交，成为第一个承认新中国的阿拉伯、非洲国家。建交以来，中埃两国友好合作关系不断发展。1999年，两国建立面向21世纪的战略合作关系，双边关系的发展进入了一个新阶段。近年来，两国领导人互访频繁，双方在政治、经济、科技和文化等领域的合作日益密切。2004年1月，胡锦涛主席对埃及进行国事访问。2006年6月，温家宝总理对埃及进行正式访问，双方共同签署了《中埃关于深化战略合作关系的实施纲要》。2006年11月穆巴拉克总统来华出席中非合作论坛北京峰会后对中国进行国事访问。两国发表建交50周年联合新闻公报。2005年，中埃两国的贸易额超过21.45亿美元，同比增长36.1%。中埃关系——南南合作的典范　中埃战略合作关系成果丰硕1956年5月不au

　　 8h

　　气候环境thA

　　y

　　7

　　全国干燥少雨。埃及南部属热带沙漠气候，夏季气温较高，昼夜温差较大。尼罗河三角洲和北部沿海地区，属亚热带地中海气候，气候相对温和。冬季平均气温为9－19度，夏季平均气温为22－34度。是

　　北美文学网月

　　文化简介

　　C

　　埃及文化是具有非洲特点的阿拉伯文化，特别是亚历山大城，其次是开罗。其间夹杂着利凡特文化的特点，即法国、希腊、土耳其和叙利亚文化的混合体。了j

　　随着7世纪阿拉伯人的入侵，新的统治者和自身文化的保护人将阿拉伯语和伊斯兰教传播开来，其中禁止偶像崇拜，对大部分埃及人从过去法老和希腊罗马时代的宗教中解脱出来产生重大影响。只有很少过去的传统在科普特教堂中以改良的方式保存下来。r 国

　　埃及城市中，中产阶级的生活状况和生活方式与欧美居民没有太大的区别。以开罗为例，在众多书店、电影院、新歌剧院、文化团体和大学里，他们有很多机会去分享和体验国际社会的方方面面。为f

　　对于城市贫民来说，虽然与从法老时代以来一直毫无变化的单调的农村生活比起来，城市生活有些乐趣，但仍是相当乏味的。电视和电影以及公共庆祝活动，给人们的生活增添了乐趣。小摊小贩在忙碌着出售手工艺品和糖果，这儿也举办婚礼，有音乐、苦行僧唱诗、木偶剧、说书和歌舞。1989年获诺贝尔文学奖的Neguib Mahfouz的小说中，生动地描述了现代埃及社会各阶级的生活画面

　　x以

　　首都简介国以

　　f来

　　埃及首都开罗横跨尼罗河，气魄雄伟，风貌壮观，是整个中东地区的政治、经济和商业中心。它由开罗省的全部、吉萨省和克留比亚省的城区部分合起来组成，统称大开罗。大开罗有近1577万人口，是埃及和阿拉伯世界最大的城市，也是世界十大城市之一。埃及的食物十分多样化，因此尝试不同食物也应该是这段冒险旅程的一部份。敞开心胸去尝不同的食物，不要一直去想它的成分到底是什么。而且，在埃及，享用特别而丰盛的一餐通常花不了多少钱。在城市里则可以找到不少餐厅，咖啡馆，以及快餐店。花u 北美文学网5

　　

　　大事年表0的

　　9

　　约公元前3100年个

　　上埃及王美尼斯征服了下埃及，建统一的奴隶制国家，史称第一王朝。hp

　　约公元前2686年要

　　第三王朝建立，定都孟裴斯，逐渐形成中央集权的君主专制国家，这和后来的第四、五、六王朝构成古王国时期，历代国王建造大量金字塔为陵墓，也称“金字塔时代”t

　　约公元前1567年日大 8b

　　第十八王朝建立，建都底比斯，中央集权强化，法老成为国王正式头衔。的

　　公元前945年f了

　　利比亚雇佣军推翻第二十一王朝，建立二十二王朝，即利比亚王朝。f要

　　公元前525年日上 A

　　波斯军队打败埃及军队，灭第二十六王朝，史称第二十七王朝，即波斯王朝。 g

　　约公元前333年 8是

　　埃及成为亚历山大帝国的一部分，法老时代结束。的

　　公元前323年～公元前305年ft

　　亚历山大帝国分裂，托勒密在埃及建立托勒密王朝。B一

　　公元前48年r 国

　　罗马统帅恺撒支持女王克里奥帕特拉掌握政权。

　　公元前30年天

　　屋大维率军占领埃及，灭托勒密王朝，埃及成为罗马帝国的一个省。u

　　640年的

　　阿拉伯进攻埃及，埃及成为阿拉伯帝国的属地。上

　　1517年 s来

　　土耳其奥斯曼帝国军队占领开罗，埃及沦为奥斯曼帝国的一省。y

　　1798年日4c

　　拿破伦率法国军队入侵并占领埃及。不y

　　1801年～1802年来

　　英国与土耳其联军打败法军，埃及重归奥斯曼统治。风

　　1869年

　　苏伊士运河正式通航。以

　　1882年 s说为l

　　英国宣布埃及为英国“保护国”。了

　　1922年j

　　英国宣布埃及为独立国家，埃及王国成立。0 为何

　　1953年6月的

　　埃及共和国成立，废除君主制。是

　　1958年个

　　埃及与叙利亚组成阿拉伯联合共和国，简称“阿联”。

　　1961年c我的

　　叙利亚发生政变，宣布退出阿联。h大

　　1971年9月 gu

　　改国名为阿拉伯埃及共和国。北美文学网春

　　1981年i

　　萨达特总统遇刺身亡，副总统穆巴拉克当选总统。花7

　　1999年

　　穆巴拉克连续第四次当选总统。花以大

　　个f

　　古埃及的天文学何为个

　　风

　　人类最早的太阳历u

　　古埃及创造了人类历史上最早的太阳历。早在公元前4000年时，埃及人就已经把1年确定为365天，全年分成12个月，每月30天，余下的5天作为节日之用；同时还把一年分为3季，即“泛滥季”“播种季”“收割季”，每季4个月。实际上，古埃及的这种历法并不精确，因为1个天文年是365.25日，所以古埃及历每隔4年便比天文历落后1天。然而在古代世界，它却是最佳的历法。为d

　　在古王国时期，埃及人观察到当尼罗河开始泛滥时，天狼星清晨正好出现在埃及的地平线上，于是古埃及人将这一天定位一年的第一天。风wa

　　建筑中的天文学知识Dw1

　　古埃及的建筑与天文学密切相关，许多建筑中都隐含了一定的天文学知识。的 d的

　　著名的金字塔就隐含了许多天文学知识。金字塔的四面正对着东南西北四个方向。胡夫大金字塔的北面有隧道，可以进入金字塔的中心部位，由那儿眺望北方夜空，北极星正好映入眼帘。来 v

　　哈夫拉金字塔王殿内南北方位有两个通气孔。北通气孔指向当时猎户星座的Zeta星。另外，狮身人面像在春分日和秋分日这两天它的正面永远都正对着太阳升起的地方，千万年不变。i

　　了 de

　　古埃及的数学

　　j北美枫

　　十进制计数法时

　　古埃及人很早就采用了十进制记数法。在现存的莱因特纸草和莫斯科纸草上记载了不少埃及人的数学问题，虽然只是片段，仍然可以表明当时古埃及人的数学已经取得了相当大的成就。

　　古埃及人依次用笔画排列记数到9，然后用一个好像倒写的“U”的符号代表10.但古埃及人写111这个三位数时，每一数位都用一个特殊的符号表示，而不是像现在一样将1重复写三次。这说明埃及人当时还没有完全掌握十位进制。是

　　 A

　　古埃及的医学u

　　个 A

　　千年不腐的木乃伊 v

　　古埃及千年不腐的“木乃伊”闻名于世。古埃及人认为人的身体是灵魂的安息处，要想获得永生，就必须把尸体保存好。制作木乃伊在古埃及第一王朝之前就开始了。CB有

　　1991年，埃及科学家穆罕默德·塞闭特博士发现，古埃及人在制作木乃伊时使用了放射性物质。埃及国家博物馆对古代法老和王后的木乃伊进行研究时，利用探测仪器证明，馆内几具古埃及不同时期，不同地点的木乃伊体内的充填物中均含有放射性物质，可以释放出α，β， γ射线。由此可以确认古埃及人早在4000多年前就已经在运用放射性物质保护法老的木乃伊了。

　　Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, (ˈiː.dʒɪpt (help·info), Egyptian: Kemet; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ Kīmi; Arabic: مصر‎ Miṣr; Egyptian Arabic: Máṣr) is a country in North Africa. The Sinai Peninsula is part of northeastern Egypt, which also forms a land bridge to Asia. Covering an area of about 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi), Egypt borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. The northern coast borders the Mediterranean Sea; the eastern coast borders the Red Sea.j9

　　j

　　Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its estimated 80,300,000 people (2007 US State Department estimate) live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely-populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.t

　　D

　　Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the Giza pyramid complex and its Great Sphinx. The southern city of Luxor contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the Middle East.北美枫

　　0

　　One of the ancient Egyptian names of the country, Kemet (kṃt), or "black land" (from kem "black"), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the deshret, or "red land" (dšṛt), of the desert.[citation needed] The name is realized as kīmi and kīmə in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία (Khēmía).[citation needed] Another name was t3-mry "land of the riverbank". The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw (t3-šmˁw) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew (t3 mḥw) "northland", respectively. 何

　　 v

　　Miṣr, the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם (Mitzráyim), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).[2] The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".Br

　　不年春

　　The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word Aegyptus derived from the ancient Greek word Aígyptos (Αίγυπτος). The adjective aigýpti, aigýptios was borrowed into Coptic as gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic as qubṭī, back formed into qubṭ, whence English Copt. The term is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah (ḥwt-k3-ptḥ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.[citation needed] Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which Aígyptos (Αίγυπτος ) had evolved as a compound from Aegaeon uptiōs (Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως), meaning "below the Aegean".要i

　　以

　　春r

　　History来

　　一个

　　Giza PyramidsMain articles: History of Egypt, Ancient Egypt, and Egyptians 一国

　　来BA

　　The Nile River in EgyptEvidence of human habitation in the Nile Valley since the Paleolithic era appears in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.[3]e

　　

　　By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley[citation needed]. During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to Dynastic Egyptian civilization. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining somewhat culturally separate, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[4]时c

　　

　　tAwy ('Two Lands') 81

　　in hieroglyphs

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　　A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 BC by King Menes, giving rise to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptians subsequently referred to their unified country as tawy, meaning "two lands", and later kemet (Coptic: kīmi), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c.2700−2200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.w来

　　e

　　以

　　The Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom, are modern national icons that are at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.hA

　　天

　　The New Kingdom (c.1550−1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Jebel Barkal in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first known self-conscious expression of monotheism came during this period in the form of Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.北美枫

　　 g

　　是个

　　First built in the third or fourth century AD, the Hanging Church is Cairo's most famous Coptic church.The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks and Romans, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule.h说来

　　花y

　　Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the AD first century. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[5] 何

　　

　　The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was invaded by the Muslim Arabs. The form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was Sunni. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity, giving rise to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.[6] Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, including a period for which it was the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250. They continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517.大

　　j

　　是日和

　　Mosque of Mohamed Ali built in the early nineteenth century within the Cairo Citadel.The brief French Invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 had a great social impact on the country and its culture. Native Egyptians became exposed to the principles of the French Revolution and had a chance to exercise self-governance.[7] A series of civil wars took place between the Ottoman Turks, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries following the evacuation of French troops, resulting in the Albanian Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) taking control of Egypt. He was appointed as the Ottoman viceroy in 1805. He led a modernization campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and increased industrialization, which were then taken up and further expanded by his grandson and successor Isma'il Pasha. 为要

　　要

　　In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Members of the Assembly were elected from across Egypt and came to have an important influence on governmental decisions.[8] Following the completion of the Suez Canal by Khedive Ismail in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation and trading hub. However, the country fell heavily into debt to European powers. As a result, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt's government in 1882 to protect its financial interests, especially those in the Suez Canal.j

　　大

　　Shortly after its political intervention, Britain sent troops into Alexandria and the Canal Zone, taking advantage of Egypt's weak military. With the defeat of the Egyptian army at the Battle of Tel el-Kebir, British troops reached Cairo, eliminated the nationalist government and disbanded the Egyptian military. Technically, Egypt remained an Ottoman province until 1914, when Britain formally declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed Egypt's last khedive, Abbas II. His uncle, Husayn Kamil, was appointed as Sultan in his place.[9]i 日l

　　是 v

　　Between 1882 and 1906, a local nationalist movement for independence, spurred by British actions, was taking shape. The Dinshaway Incident prompted Egyptian opposition to take a stronger stand against British occupation. The first political parties were founded. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March 8, 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February 22, 1922.[10]

　　

　　The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.

　　9 何

　　On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on June 18, 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26, 1956 prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis.wfBB

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　　 9t

　　View of Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. The Cairo Opera House (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, during which Israel had invaded and occupied Sinai, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.

　　7r

　　In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return with peace with Israel.c

　　 d他

　　Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.[11] A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981. He was succeeded by the incumbent Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kefaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.花不

　　 8小北美枫

　　i

　　Identity

　　Main article: Egyptians#Identity是

　　 C

　　Mahmoud Mokhtar's Egypt's Renaissance 1919-1928, Cairo University.The Egyptian Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Christianity and Islam; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic.[citation needed] The degree to which Egyptians identify with each layer of Egypt's history in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary. Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism, secular Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[12] Arab nationalism reached a peak under Nasser but was once again relegated under Sadat; meanwhile, the ideology espoused by radical muslim groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood is present in small segments of the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[13]h不

　　 ss9

　　花有

　　GeographywD

　　Main article: Geography of Egypt要

　　 C

　　White Desert, FarafraAt 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi),[14] Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country (after Mauritania). It is comparable in size to Tanzania, twice the size of France, four times the size of the United Kingdom, and is more than half the size of the US state of Alaska.上 du

　　c

　　Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.[15] 为大日人

　　 v要

　　了u

　　The Coastline of Alexandria, Egypt's second largest cityEgypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.天

　　

　　Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is a sandy desert. The winds blowing can create sand dunes more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats.个

　　

　　Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.来

　　

　　 r

　　Satellite image of Egypt, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library9

　　Climate

　　Egypt does not receive much rainfall except in the winter months.[16] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16 in),[17] with most of the rainfall between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria, frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.来我6

　　一

　　Temperatures average between 80 °F (27 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) in summer, and up to 109 °F (43 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between 55 °F (13 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C) in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C).C

　　我8

　　The rise in sea levels due to global warming threatens Egypt’s densely populated coastal strip and could have grave consequences for the country’s economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the century, according to climate experts.[18]c是

　　0

　　

　　Politics

　　Main article: Politics of Egypt

　　x

　　Nationaly 日一

　　Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14, 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.

　　的9

　　Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005.u

　　为p

　　In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."[19] However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.[20] Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.[21] After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the “conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law.”[22]

　　是9

　　As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 78 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.[23] A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.[24]花7

　　

　　Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on March 19, 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.[25] As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum would be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27,2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of certain opposition elements, particularly Islamists. 日p

　　春

　　x

　　Human rightse

　　Main article: Human rights in Egypt上

　　

　　Members of the Kefaya democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President Hosni Mubarak. See also video.Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[26]cC

　　一c

　　Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning Coptic Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major construction still requires governmental approval, while sporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.[27] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis and Shi'a, also remains a problem.[26] The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism. When the government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification documents.[28] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[29] (For more on the status of religious minorities, see the Religion section.)hA 一

　　个时

　　In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."[30] It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."[31] g

　　 A

　　In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.[32] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.[33] 为中9

　　是

　　Consensual homosexual conduct between adults is criminalized under Egyptian law as a "practice of debauchery".[34] Since 2001, Egyptian authorities have made hundreds of arbitrary arrests of young gay men, many of whom have been tried and convicted for acts of "debauchery", while hundreds of others have been harassed and tortured, according to HRW.[35] In February 2008, a new round of arrests and torture of HIV-positive citizens followed a man's admission to the police that he was HIV-positive, sparking international outcry that the Egyptian government was treating the AIDS disease as a homosexual "crime" instead of providing care, prevention and education.[36]北美枫日全

　　w生

　　The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[37] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the president.[38] The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations[39] and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.[40] Egypt had announced in 2006 that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,[41] but in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.[42]

　　B们

　　时y

　　Foreign relationsuu

　　Main article: Foreign relations of Egypt

　　Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.以要

　　 sD

　　The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.

　　j

　　Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab states still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited and recently challenged by Saudi Arabia and oil rich Gulf States.[citation needed] It is also reported that due to Egypt's indulgence in internal problems and its reluctance to play a positive role in regional matters had lost the country great influence in Africa and the neighbouring countries.[citation needed]7

　　日他

　　Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.w大

　　

　　0

　　Governorates and markazes

　　Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Markazes of Egyptx

　　

　　Map of Egypt, showing the 26 capitals of governorates, plus the self-governing city of Luxor (numbers label 5 capitals).Egypt is divided into 28 governorates (in Arabic, called muhafazat, singular muhafazah). The governorates are further divided into regions (markazes).了

　　风

　　Each governorate has a capital, often having the same name as the governorate (see map, showing names of the 28 capitals).

　　日何日2

　　The tables (below) list the governorates in alphabetical order. In April 2008, Cairo and Giza have divided to 4 governorates, the new governorates are 6th of October and Helwan beside Cairo and Giza

　　c

　　Governorate Capital Location

　　Alexandria Alexandria Northern 大7

　　Aswan Aswan Upper v

　　Asyut Asyut Upper 风 v

　　Beheira Damanhur Lower 要

　　Beni Suef Beni Suef Upper y

　　Cairo Cairo Middle 日y上

　　Dakahlia Mansura Lower 国北美枫

　　Damietta Damietta Lower 不山天

　　Faiyum Faiyum Upper 要

　　Gharbia Tanta Lower c

　　Giza Giza Upper do的

　　Helwan Helwan Middle jc

　　Ismailia Ismailia Canal

　　Kafr el-Sheikh Kafr el-Sheikh Lower 大

　　Luxor Luxor Upper 以风

　　 Governorate Capital Location wy

　　Matruh Mersa Matruh Western g 国

　　Minya Minya Upper

　　Monufia Shibin el-Kom Lower 北美文学网A

　　New Valley Kharga Western f

　　North Sinai Arish Sinai 国

　　Port Said Port Said Canal B生要

　　Qalyubia Banha Lower 为月要

　　Qena Qena Upper

　　Red Sea Hurghada Eastern 的r

　　Sharqia Zagazig Lower 86x

　　Sohag Sohag Upper 国

　　South Sinai el-Tor Sinai y了

　　Suez Suez Canal i

　　大

　　

　　 8f

　　Economy 国

　　Main article: Economy of Egypt

　　的

　　Downtown Cairo is a busy economic centerEgypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[citation needed]上x

　　

　　The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.

　　iy

　　Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 LT/660,000 ST) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over 1,100,000 cubic meters (39,000,000 cu ft) in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries.我w了

　　

　　Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006. 8不

　　日3

　　 h自

　　Tourists ride in traditional Nile boats.FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006. Egypt is slated to overcome South Africa as the highest earner of FDI on the African continent in 2007.[citation needed]

　　了是

　　Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth.[citation needed] Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat. This is slated to be pumped into the country's railroad system, in response to public outrage against the government for disasters in 2006 that claimed more than 100 lives.[citation needed]

　　

　　The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the Orascom Group and Raya. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.

　　

　　个

　　Demographics s自

　　Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians春

　　春

　　Egyptian farmEgypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the second-most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 78 million people. Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 80-90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.[43] Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity,[44] made by the Green Revolution.[45]t

　　9上

　　Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 94% (about 72.5 million) of the total population.[43] Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.c

　　uu

　　Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, but they are estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[46] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[46] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[47] but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[48] The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.Bh

　　

　　春y

　　Religion以i

　　Main article: Religion in Egypt

　　 y

　　Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosquesReligion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives. The rolling calls to prayer that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and church towers.了为大

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　　Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 80-90% of the population, with the majority being adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam.[43] A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[49] and there is a minority of Shi'a.我大j

　　

　　Christians represent 10-20% of the population,[50] more than 95% of whom belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Alexandria and Cairo, and are members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Maronite Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, or the Syriac Orthodox Church.th日

　　何花在

　　According to the Constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic laws. The mainstream Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state, through Wizaret Al-Awkaf (Ministry of Religious Affairs). Al-Awkaf controls all mosques and overviews Muslim clerics. Imams are trained in Imam vocational schools and at Al-Azhar University. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give Fatwa judgements on Islamic issues.x以

　　y要

　　

　　Over ten million Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University is the oldest Islamic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 A.D) and considered by many to be the oldest extant university. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, headed by the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, attests to Egypt's strong Christian heritage. It has a following of approximately 15 million Christians worldwide; affiliated sister churches are located in Armenia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Lebanon and Syria.春

　　w中

　　Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist Islamist groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. These obstacles are not found in building mosques.[51][52]B5了

　　i

　　In addition, Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[53] The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals (such as Saad Eddin Ibrahim and Tarek Heggy), maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt, who constitute between 10 and 15% of the population in Egypt. Of the 32 cabinet ministers, two are Copts: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Minister of Environment Magued George; and of the 25 local governors, only one is a Copt (in the Upper Egyptian governorate of Qena). However, Copts have demonstrated great success in Egypt's private business sector; Naguib Sawiris, an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's wealthiest 100 people is a Copt. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday.[54] Nevertheless, the Coptic community has occasionally been the target of hate crimes and physical assaults. The most significant was the 2000-2001 El Kosheh attacks , in which 21 Copts and one Muslim were killed. A 2006 attack on three churches in Alexandria left one dead and 17 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any organisation.[55]r

　　何

　　一我说

　　Annex of the Library of Jewish Heritage in Egypt, Ben Ezra Synagogue, Old Cairo.Egypt was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. Egyptian Jews, who were mostly Karaites, partook of all aspects of Egypt's social, economic and political life; one of the most ardent Egyptian nationalists, Yaqub Sanu' (Abu Naddara), was a Jew, as were famous musician Dawoud Husni, popular singer Leila Mourad, and prominent filmmaker Togo Mizrahi. For a while, Jews from across the Ottoman Empire and Europe were attracted to Egypt due to the relative harmony that characterized the local religious landscape in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, a great number of Jews were expelled by Gamal Abdel Nasser, many of whom holding official Egyptian citizenship. Their Egyptian citizenship was revoked and their property was confiscated. A steady stream of migration of Egyptian Jews followed, reaching a peak after the Six-Day War with Israel in 1967. Today, Jews in Egypt number less than 100.[56]来7

　　w了何

　　Bahá'ís in Egypt, whose population is estimated to be a few thousand, have long been persecuted, having their institutions and community activities banned. Since their faith is not officially recognized by the state, they were not allowed to use it on their national identity cards; a court case in 2008 allowed Bahá'ís to obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[29]

　　我n

　　There are Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic, but their numbers are largely unknown, as openly advocating such positions risks legal sanction on the basis of apostasy (if a citizen takes the step of suing the 'apostating' person, though not automatically by the general prosecutor). In 2000, an openly atheist Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local association for atheists, was tried on charges of insulting Islam in four of his books.[57] A 国

　　

　　While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents.[58] The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim.[59] Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.[60] In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam.[61] However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted back to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards,[62] but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.[63]

　　

　　C

　　Culture

　　Main article: Culture of Egypt时

　　个D

　　Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a commemoration of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Egypt's second largest city.Egyptian culture has five thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.要

　　 v

　　Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.

　　风

　　大

　　Renaissance的

　　The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[64] Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[65] 何t

　　u 日p

　　 dk

　　Art and architecture A

　　我n dd

　　Eighteenth dynasty painting from the tomb of Theban governor Ramose in Deir el-Madinah.The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, colonnades and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous.t

　　了

　　The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[66] To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, have achieved worldwide fame.了

　　 8中

　　天

　　Literature我g

　　Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[citation needed] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[67] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.

　　要

　　7

　　Music9

　　Main article: Music of Egyptr

　　春

　　Upper Egyptian folk musicians from Kom Ombo.Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. These prominent artists were followed later by Amr Diab. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.i0

　　h春

　　7

　　Festivals春个

　　Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

　　风

　　何

　　Sports来

　　个为t

　　Cairo International Stadium during the 2006 African Cup of NationsFootball (soccer) is the de facto national sport of Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs El Ahly and El Zamalek are the two most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favorite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the Africa Cup of Nations. While, Egypt's national team has not qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990, the Egyptian team won the Africa Cup Of Nations an unprecedented six times, including two times in a row in 1957 and 1959 and again in 2006 and 2008, setting a world record. 为4

　　不小

　　Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana is Egypt's best player and the winner of the world open three times and the best player of 2006.天

　　的 s月

　　The Egyptian Handball team also holds another record; throughout the 34 times the African Handball Nations Championship was held, Egypt won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, four times third place, and came in fourth place twice. The team won 6th and 7th places in 1995, 1997 at the World Men's Handball Championship, and twice won 6th place at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics.fi

　　w自

　　In 2007, Omar joined Ben Stephens (England), Victoria James (Wales) and Greg Maud (South Africa) in putting together an expedition to climb Mount Everest from its South side. The Everest expedition began on the 25th of March 2007 and lasted for just over 9 weeks. On the 17th of May at precisely 9:49AM Nepal time, Omar became the first and youngest Egyptian to climb 8,850m Mount Everest. He also became the first Egyptian to climb Everest from its South face, the same route taken by Sir Edmund Hilary and Sherpa Tenzing in 1953.e个

　　的x

　　Egypt has a long history of participation at the Summer Olympics since 1912.i的

　　e

　　D 日y

　　Best results A

　　Games Gold Silver Bronze Total

　　1928 Amsterdam 2 1 1 4 以

　　1936 Berlin 2 1 2 5 hk

　　1948 London 2 2 1 5 0来

　　2004 Athens 1 1 3 5 一 s一

　　Total 7 7 9 23

　　 8不

　　春

　　Military是

　　Main article: Military of Egypte

　　

　　Two Egyptian Mi-17 helicopters after unloading troops during an exercise.The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.[68] According to the Israeli chair of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the IDF.[69] The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernization mostly in their Air Force. Other than Israel, Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the first country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1, and is planning to launch 3 more satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years.Egypt is considered to be the leading military power in the Middle East along with Israel [70]花nr

　　时 v

　　

　　See also dux

　　Ancient Egypt 日w9

　　Canal of the pharaohs y

　　Capital of Egypt y

　　Communications in Egypt D

　　Copt C

　　 Egyptian language ti

　　Egyptian mythology 7大

　　Egyptian pyramids 我要

　　Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council 7

　　Egyptians 何x

　　 History of Armenians in Egypt v

　　History of Egypt h全

　　History of Italians in Egypt

　　History of the Jews in Egypt 为g

　　Masri (Egyptian Arabic) e

　　 Public holidays in Egypt

　　Red Sea Riviera 天

　　Scouts and Girl Guides

　　Sinai Peninsula

　　Transport in Egypt 是

　　Holy Family in Egypt i 一

　　

　　h7

　　 c

　　C

　　D

　　Lists0

　　Main list: List of basic Egypt topics 上x

　　List of Rulers and heads of state of Egypt 花小

　　List of writers from Egypt 花g春

　　List of Egyptian companies t

　　List of Egypt-related topics dg

　　List of Egyptians 为中大

　　List of Egyptian universities 的是

　　风 v

　　Notes and references时 8m

　　^ "Egypt" in the CIA World Factbook, 2007. 春国

　　^ Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005 v

　　^ Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 个

　　^ Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69. v9

　　^ Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39

　　^ El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140 x

　　^ Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt. 4th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992, p. 39 j大

　　^ Jankowski, James. Egypt: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. p. 83 以0

　　^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 111 天

　　^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 112 北美枫天

　　^ Vatikiotis, p. 443 北美枫

　　^ Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244-45 的

　　^ Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003, pp. 264-65, 267 g风

　　^ World Factbook area rank order

　　^ Hamza, Waleed. Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case. Accessed= 2007-06-10.

　　^ Soliman, KH. Rainfall over Egypt. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, pp. 104-104.

　　^ Marsa Matruh, Egypt. Weatherbase.com. Last accessed February 12, 2008.

　　^ Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt | IRIN News, March 2008 国f

　　^ Business TodayEGYPT. Mubarak throws presidential race wide open. March 2005.

　　^ Lavin, Abigail. Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections. March 27, 2006. y

　　^ Murphy, Dan. Egyptian vote marred by violence. Christian Science Monitor. May 26, 2005. 是

　　^ United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour. U.S. Department of State, Published December 24, 2005

　　^ Gomez, Edward M. Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election. San Francisco Chronicle. September 13, 2005.

　　^ Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006. 0

　　^ Anger over Egypt vote timetable BBC News. tx

　　^ a b Human Rights Watch. Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005 日q

　　^ Church Building Regulations Eased t

　　^ U.S. Department of State (2004-09-15). Egypt: International Religious Freedom Report. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Retrieved on 2008-01-30. 要

　　^ a b Johnston, Cynthia. "Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers", Reuters, 2008-01-29. Retrieved on 2008-01-30. y

　　^ Freedom in the World 2006 (PDF). Freedom House (2005-12-16). Retrieved on 2006-07-27. 为7

　　See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom 的

　　^ Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006 e sl

　　^ Egypt torture centre, report says. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-11. Accessed 2007-4-11.

　　^ Egypt rejects torture criticism. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-13. Accessed 2007-4-13. c 北美文学网1

　　^ HRW. HIV-Motivated Arrests and Convictions Threaten Justice and Public Health. February 5, 2008. 以

　　^ HRW. In a Time of Torture: The Assault on Justice In Egypt’s Crackdown on Homosexual Conduct. 2004 j

　　^ AFP. Egypt chaining HIV men to hospital beds: rights group. February, 2008.

　　^ Egyptian Organization for Human Rights 个 d4

　　^ Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights.

　　^ Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs. EOHR. June 3, 2003. 不自h一

　　^ Qenawy, Ahmed. The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree. ANHRI. 2004 i A

　　^ Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.

　　^ Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution. Reuters. March 20, 2007.

　　^ a b c Egyptian people section from the World Factbook. World Fact Book. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. 时我s

　　^ BBC NEWS | The limits of a Green Revolution? 日D

　　^ Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy 以

　　^ a b Refugees in Egypt.

　　^ Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt B2

　　^ See The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants for a lower estimate. The The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights states on its web site that in 2000 the World Council of Churches claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US. 北美文学网有f

　　^ Hoffman, Valerie J. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. University of South Carolina Press, 1995. db

　　^ Wahington Institute (Citing pop. estimates) h5

　　^ WorldWide Religious News. Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005. t

　　^ Compass Direct News. Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005. D9

　　^ Human Rights Watch. Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005 以

　　^ ArabicNews.com. Copts welcome Presidential announcement on Eastern Christmas Holiday. December 20, 2002.

　　^ BBC. Egypt church attacks spark anger, 15 April 2006. 风

　　^ Jewish Community Council (JCC) of Cairo. Bassatine News. 2006. 花d

　　^ Halawi, Jailan. "Limits to expression", Al-Ahram Weekly, 21-27 December 2000. w一为月

　　^ Human Rights Watch. World report 2007: Egypt. 北美文学网x

　　^ EGYPT: NATIONAL UNITY AND THE COPTIC ISSUE. 2004 天

　　^ Egypt: Egypt Arrests 22 Muslim converts to Christianity. 03 November, 2003 v

　　^ Shahine, Gihan. "Fraud, not Freedom". Ahram Weekly, 3 - 9 May 2007

　　^ Associated Press. Egypt court upholds right of converted Muslims to return to Christianity. 2008-02-09.

　　^ AFP. Egypt allows converts to revert to Christianity on ID. February, 2008.

　　^ El-Daly, op cit., p. 29 0

　　^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 130 7 v

　　^ Cairo Film Festival information.

　　^ Vatikiotis, op cit. 日d我天

　　^ Egypt Military Strength

　　^ Steinitz, Yuval. Not the peace we expected. Haaretz. December 05, 2006. e

　　^ Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," Jerusalem Post, January 15, 2007.

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　　中国共产党畜牲:霸王主义,愚民生活.

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